Climate change is one of the most contentious public policy issues facing the world today. While there is practically no argument challenging the reality of the ongoing global warming, what is essentially being contested is whether climate change is anthropogenic or simply a natural, cyclical phenomenon upon which human activities do not cast a major impact. This paper will attempt to compare these two opposing perspectives on climate change.

Science of Climate Change

A comparison of the differing perspectives on the obtaining global warming takes off from the basics of the new science of climate change. This field covers several disciplines including chemistry, meteorology, physics, biology, oceanography, biology, and even sociology (Global Climate Change).

The beginning of climate change science can be traced to Svante Arrhenius, a Swedish scientist who concluded in his 1896 study that changes in of carbon dioxide or CO2 could produce effects on the climate. Later, in 1938, Guy Stewart. Callendar, an English engineer, asserted that the increased CO2 levels had given rise to a warming trend (Scheider).

Greenhouse Effect

Because of the transparency of the atmospheric gasses to visible light, sunlight is able to largely penetrate the earth’s atmosphere and reach the surface, where it is absorbed heated up, and thereafter re-emitted in the form of infrared radiation. In this form, this energy is not able to completely escape to space because clouds and certain other naturally-occurring particles and gases absorb infrared radiation. The trapped infrared energy is emitted again in opposing directions-towards the surface and back to space. The re-emission downwards particularly adds heat to the layers below, leading to the further warming of the surface of the earth. Ultimately, the presence of greenhouse gasses accounts for the higher surface temperature, with a difference of 33 °C (60 °F) between the actual surface air temperature and what would have been without the greenhouse gases (Schneider).

The presence of natural greenhouse gases has made the plant more habitable. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, and to a limited extent, also methane, constitute the most important of the naturally occurring greenhouse gases (Schneider). The fact that human activities contribute to the content of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere forms the crux of the global warming debate.

Anthropogenic Perspective

Humans, being part of the biosphere, have always influenced the earth’s climate system. This climate system is made up not only of the atmosphere and the hydrosphere but also of the cryosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere. Thousands of years ago, when nomadic humans discovered agriculture, they cleared vast tracts of land, thus casting considerable impact on regional climate-a development that will be sustained for centuries since. Humans would engage in slash-and-burn farming and other agricultural practices, inland water regulation or building development-activities that altered how the Earth’s surface and near-surface winds of the atmosphere back-scatter solar radiation (cited in Hillerbrand and Ghil 2132).

At the same time, human activities have been influenced by climatic variations, either promoting or constraining them. It is only rather very recently, with advances in science, technology and the resulting construction of sophisticated infrastructural systems have humans considerably lessened the impact of climatic variations on their activities (Schneider).

However, according to the anthropogenic paradigm of climate change, it is at the point when humans became less restrained by variations in climate that their activities began to considerably contribute to global warming, leading to the changes we now see around us. These changes include the erratic weather patterns and perhaps the more potentially dramatic effects on animals and plants. This came about beginning around the 1800s, the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, which is the point when human knowledge in science and technology allowed people to alter more the environment to conform more to their plans and establish new lifestyles.

This perspective holds that fossil fuel burning and other human activities have raised the levels of CO2 and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, significantly contributing to global warming. According to the IPCC or Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the body formed by the World Meteorological Organization and the United Nations Environment Programme, the average earth surface temperature has risen by about 0.60 in the 20th century. This temperature level is believed to be warmer than at any point in the past century, with the warmest years occurring within the last ten years (Global Climate Change). The IPCC in its updated 2007 report points to human activities as the likely cause of global warming, being cautious to point out that given the complexity of the workings of the earth’s climate, full certainty may not be reached (Weart and American Institute, Introduction).

While it is a historical fact that early on, people did not seriously consider the impact of human-induced CO2 on the world’s climate, military researches during World War II and the Cold War led to further understanding of the CO2 impact. Scientists began to understand that the absorption of CO2 by the oceans was slow, essentially owing to the exponential growth of industry and population (Feldman and Weart). In the 1950s, scientists discovered the possibility of global warming almost by accident (Weart and American Institute, The Carbon). In 1965, Lorenz, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, suggested during a conference that global warming could lead to disastrous ’surprises’ (Scheider). C.D. Keeling, for his part, found that atmospheric levels of CO2 were rapidly rising.

In contrast to the climate change of the past, the obtaining global warming is being initiated by human activities that add greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. Furthermore, the rise of temperature following increases gas levels involved a short time lag of only a few decades instead of centuries. Thus the rates of climate change are hugely faster than the shifts in orbit responsible for the ice ages of the past (Feldman and Weart).

The 2005 comparison of computer calculations with protracted ocean basin temperatures showed near matches of rising temperatures and calculated predictions of where greenhouse effects should be. This was seen as proof of temperature imbalance, with the planet absorbing close to an average of one watt per square meter of sunlight more than it was reflecting into space-caused by no less than greenhouse gases (Feldman and Weart).

It is worth noting that the global warming effects of worse droughts, heat waves, severe storms and floods were correctly predicted as early as the 1950s-to start manifesting sometime in the year 2000 (Feldman and Weart). Today, those who subscribe to this perspective hold just minor disagreements in terms of the details of the processes underlying the general themes (Global Climate Change). The projection is that by the close of this century, the average temperature of the earth can range from about 1.4-60C, depending on how successful the restrictions of greenhouse gas emissions will be (Weart and American Institute, Introduction).

Climate Change as Natural Phenomenon

In the United States, the science of climate change has been particularly politicized. The administration of George W. Bush has been criticized for the suppression of scientific reports on global warming, beginning with the deliberate withholding of the “National Assessment” report made during the Bill Clinton administration, which reported that on the whole, global warming can lead to some benefits but most of its impacts would be adverse. A 2003 bill proposing a weak system of carbon emissions trading was defeated following opposition from the administration and the denunciation by certain senators as to how its restrictions would ruin the economy. Later, Republican Senator James Inhofe tried to show that global warming was “the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people” by holding hearings in the hope of producing credible and scientific evidence or testimonies supporting his stand; however, it is said that even his fellow Republican lawmakers started to doubt the wisdom of his extreme position (Weart and American Institute, Government).

The position of Sen. Inhofe can be said to encapsulate the perspective that global warming is but a natural scheme of things and that the anthropogenic view is merely propaganda against the use of fossil fuels. The relatively fewer climatologists, public figures and adherents of the non-anthropogenic perspective do not actually contest the proposition that the earth is undergoing global warming. They acknowledge the reality of the presently occurring change in the global climate, beginning with the onset of the Industrial Age in the 1800s. The difference is that this perspective also cites the history or pattern of the recurring climate changes the planet has gone through while minimizing the role of human activities in the picture (Lupo).

According to this view, there are a number of major causes of global warming, including ocean circulation, volcanic eruptions, solar variations, and orbital variations. Herein, human-induced emissions of CO2 through fossil fuel burning, along with other greenhouse gases, constitute just one factor (National Academies). It holds that global warming is driven more by natural causes than by human-induced rise in greenhouse gases. This perspective points to the supposedly continuing debates in terms of (1) what role carbon dioxide plays in the carbon cycle; (2) how exactly the planet’s climate works; and (3) questions on the reliability of climate models, among others (National Academies).

This view of human activities not being the cause of global warming is nothing exactly new. After around the 1970s when science was just about only beginning to understand the intricacy of the earth’s climate even as improved computer models have already been developed, scientists argued over how deforestation and agriculture figure in the atmospheric carbon dioxide levels amidst the lack of information on the interaction of living ecosystems with the atmosphere.

Evolving Science

There remain a lot of questions to be answered in the science of climate change. The atmosphere, with its various layers of air having temperature patterns each, presents scientific challenges in terms of the understanding of whether temperature or air circulation changes comprise complex longer-term cycles. It is also not yet fully understood how the interconnection existing between the air, land and sea may multiply the effects of any climate change (Global Climate Change).

Herein, the oceans considerably figure in the regulation of climate, as bodies of water comprise over 70% of the planetary surface, absorbing great amounts of energy from the sun. As in the past, the oceans stand to greatly influence future changes in the global climate, bet they induced by natural cyclical changes or by anthropogenic activities (Global Climate Change).

The cryosphere will also continue to play an important role in climate change because its reduction/melting (or any expansion/polar water freezing) affects sea level, air temperature, storm patterns and ocean currents. The Polar Regions, it should be noted, present enormous significance to climate change science because these frozen masses contain detailed records of the earth’s past climates. Re biosphere, as global warming presents potential devastation on a number of species, given land developments that obstruct what would have been animals’ migration response option, the fossil and other records they leave can also help in the understanding or detection of climate change (Global Climate Change).

The study of climate change is a complex science. As it is, the interpretation of climate change data is difficult but predictions of future changes present even greater challenges (Global Climate Change). Climate models, which are complex computer-based simulations, are herein used but how reliable these are really depends on the number of variables and measurement accuracy.

Conclusion

The IPCC, the main body representing the consensus holding the anthropogenic perspective of climate change, was cautious enough to point out that climate change science may be understood with full certainty. The contrarian view seems to capitalize on this, in the process casting doubt on whether human activities indeed significantly contribute to global warming. In terms of the number of adherents, the anthropogenic perspective is definitely more of mainstream: while the IPCC-portrayed consensus may not be as solid, the fact is that there are fewer scientists who believe the obtaining climate change is merely a cyclical phenomenon. At any rate, both perspectives agree that global warming is happening now. The difference in the views of what mainly causes the warming of the planet will spell out the great divide between the public policies that they could give rise to.

Works Cited

Feldman, Theodore and Spencer Weart. Changing Sun, Changing Climate? Web. 25 Oct. 2009.

http://www.aip.org/history/climate/solar.htm

Global Climate Change. Web. 25 Oct. 2009. http://www.exploratorium.edu/climate/

Lupo, Anthony. Anthropogenic Global Warming: A Skeptical Point of View. Missouri Medicine.

105.2 (2008 March/April). Web. 25 Oct. 2009. http://weather.missouri.edu/

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Schneider, Stephen. Climate Change. February 2005. Stanford University Site. Web. 25 Oct.

2009. http://stephenschneider.stanford.edu/Climate/ClimateFrameset.html

Hillerbrand, Rafaela and Michael Ghil. Anthropogenic Climate Change: Scientific Uncertainties

and Moral Dilemmas. 21 Feb. 2008. Physica D 237 (2008) 2131-2138. Web. 25 Oct.

2009. http://www.atmos.ucla.edu/tcd/PREPRINTS/RH&MG-Warming_ethics-

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National Academy of Sciences. Global Warming Facts & Our Future. Web. 25 Oct. 2009.

http://www.koshland-science-museum.org/exhibitgcc/causes01.jsp

Weart, Spencer; and American Institute of Physics. Government: The View from Washington,

DC. Web. 25 Oct. 2009. http://www.aip.org/history/climate/Govt.htm

Weart, Spencer; and American Institute of Physics. Introduction: A Hyperlinked History of

Climate Change Science. Web. 25 Oct. 2009. http://www.aip.org/history/ climate/summary.htm

As one would imagine, global warming is an international phenomenon with repercussions planet-wide.  Seeped in controversy, as detractors argue it does not exist while alarmist headlines warn that the end of earth is near, global warming is an environmental issue which has just recently received acceptance by the scientific world.  Climate change is a hot topic and has been a key issue in recent elections in Canada and the United States.  Those who critics the global warming awareness movement often argue that global warming is in fact not an environmental crisis but a manufactured issue, created for many political reasons.  Despite the shrinking number of pessimists, global warming is a phenomenon which affects - and will continue to affect - our planet every single day.  Seeking to explain the issue of global warming, the following will provide a thorough and in-depth summary of global warming.  We will begin with an analysis of the evidence for global warming including the connection between climate change and global warming.  Following this, and with an aim to explore the impact of global warming on the State of California, this paper will look at consequences for United States if global warming continues.

Global warming and climate change are terms which are often used interchangeably.  Has the link between global warming and climate change been established?  Yes, according to scientists global warming is caused by an increase in greenhouse gas in the earth’s atmosphere.  As we shall see below, the effects of global warming are varied and include modifications in atmospheric temperatures and rainfall, which can lead to climate change (Arnella & Reynardb, 1996).

Global warming is generally described as the average increase in the Earth’s temperatures.  Importantly, global warming is expected to continue as time progresses and increase annually.  Global warming is the reported cause of climate change on an international scale which has lead to extreme weather across the planet, ranging from unusual snowfall in autumn to mild winter temperatures, erratic changes to precipitation trends, glacial retreat, the extinction of species, pronounced desertification and a bona fide rise in international sea levels.  Examples of global warming have been seen across the planet and have been captured by NGOs like National Geographic, who has brought some of the effects of global warming - such as the effects of global warming on the arctic - into the homes of millions worldwide.  Despite an increased acceptance that global warming does in fact exist and is here to stay, there is not unanimous agreement within the scientific world on the actual causes of global warming.  What makes the planet to warm up?  It is to this important question that we turn.

While consensus on the causes of global warming does not exist, there are many causes of this phenomenon, both natural and human-made.  Global warming has been going on for centuries and is a natural phenomenon.  A natural cause of global warming is methane gas which is released from the arctic tundra and wetlands.  As a greenhouse gas, methane traps heat in the earth’s atmosphere.  According to scholars, a natural climate cycle is approximately 40,000 years and this is another natural cause of present global warming (Vitousek, 1994).

For the first time in 2002, the United States Government acknowledged that man-made pollution was to blame for global warming.  Although the Government under George W. Bush has adamantly refused to partake in the Kyoto Protocol - the US officially rejected this treaty in 2001 - the acknowledgment that human beings have contributed to global warming is an important step in the right direction in combating this global problem.  In submitting a 268 page official report to the United Nations written by the US EPA, the United States acknowledged what many scientists, both at home and abroad, have always argued.  Accordingly, this document agrees with the assertion that a variety of human activities, including car emissions, oil refining and power generation are significant causes of global warming.  In an interesting twist of fate, the British Broadcasting Corporation reported that this Environmental Protection Agency document was submitted on the same day as 15 European Union countries - allies of the United States - ratified the Kyoto Protocol.   Although belated, in acknowledging the threat of global warming, what are the impacts that global warming and climate change have on the United States (British Broadcasting Corporation, 2002)?

The United States is a large country and after, Russia and Canada, is the third largest state on the planet.  Global changes to the world’s climates will surely have differing impacts on the diverse climate of the United States of America.  Accordingly, the United States have very different climates, as the northeastern portion of the country such New England may experience four full seasons characterized by temperate summers and icy cold winters, some areas of the southwestern tip of the United States are desert-like and have climates more commonly found in the Maghreb or Middle Eat.   What is certain, however, is that extreme changes in climate will have negative effects on the United States.  Extreme weather, represented by events such as Hurricane Katrina, wil; result in more hurricanes, tornadoes and more adverse weather.  Desertification in one part of the country, coupled with a sharp increase in precipitation in another part of the country, could wreak havoc on the United States’ agricultural production.  Declining productivity in the American agricultural sector may also lead to foreign dependence.  A foreign dependence on many of the staples of the American diet - milk, wheat products, etc - could have negative ramifications in both the social, economic and geopolitical realms.   Ecosystems will change and ecological change may lead to further desertification and the extinction of certain species.  Thus, we may witness the roll-back of fertile land in places such as New Mexico and the extinction of animals like the marmot (the Vancouver Island Marmot is presently on the verge of extinction as there are less than 75 left on the planet).   According to the US Environmental Protection Agency, “A few ecosystems, such as alpine meadows in the Rocky Mountains and some barrier islands, are likely to disappear entirely.”  Additionally, heat-related human deaths, may increase with time particularly among the elderly during periods of extreme heat in already warm places like Florida and Nevada (British Broadcasting Corporation, 2002).

Recent attempts to stop the trend of global warming through international agreements can have important ramifications for the United States.  The Kyoto Protocol, an international agreement which aims for the “stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system” (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2005) may have negative economic effects for the United States.  In fact, adherence to the stipulations of the Kyoto Protocol and the important deleterious effects; this is one of the major reasons as to why the United States Government has adamantly refused to ratify the agreement.  Some Americans feel that the targets to cut emissions of greenhouse gases will harm both the economy as well as American business interests (Clin,e 1992).

Although it has less than 4 per cent of the world’s population, the United States of America is the world’s biggest emitter of the greenhouse gas CO2,.   As a large country as well, changes to the climate of the world will have important ramifications on the United States in a variety of ways.  As we have seen, global warming is an international problem with planet-wide repercussions.  This essay has demonstrated a link between global warming and climate change and has established important precursors for the emergence of global warming on our planet.  Furthermore, we have shown that while the United States has recently embraced the link between climate change and global warming, this phenomenon will have important consequences for the country as a whole.  California, on the Pacific coast, has taken the lead when it comes to climate change awareness and has enacted a positive response which aims to reduce carbon emissions by 2020.  Although efforts to handle the effects of climate change in California have been undertaken, we must wait until these targets are actually implemented before tangible results are seen.  Global warming remains an international problem and whether or not it is appropriately addressed in the United States remains to be seen (McCarty, 2001).

REFERENCES

Arnella, N. W.  & N. S. Reynardb. (1996).  The effects of climate change due to global warming on river flows in Great Britain. Journal of Hydrology 183 (3-4), 397-424, London.

“Climate Change”.  EPA.gov.  The United States Environmental Protection Agency. Web. October 16 2009.<http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/fq/effects.html>

Cline, W.R. (1992).  The Economics of Global Warming. New York: Peterson Institute.

“Global Warming: The Causes”. Ecobridge.org.   Eco-bridge, 2008.  Web. October 16 2009. <http://www.ecobridge.org/content/g_cse.htm>

“Humans cause global warming, US admits.”  BBC.com. British Broadcasting Corporation, 3 June 2002.   Web. October 16 2009.  <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2023835.stm>

McCarthy, M. (2001) “Bush declares he won’t sign Kyoto’s landmark treaty on global warming”.  Independent.co.uk. The Independent, 29 March 2001. Web.  October 25. 2008. <http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/bush-declares-he-wont-sign-kyotos-landmark-treaty-on-global-warming-689360.html>

The Kyoto Protocol.  (1997).  The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

Vitousek, P. M. (1994).  Beyond global warming: ecology and global change. Ecology, 75(7): 1861-1876, London.

Historically the main threat to biodiversity has been a set of threats generated from the overpopulation of humans: mass agriculture, deforestation, overgrazing, slash-and-burn, urban development, pesticide use. Worldwide, the effects of global warming add a potentially catastrophic threat to global biological diversity; a 2004 study by Chris Thomas, Lee Hannah, et al. estimated that 15 to 37 percent of all species would become extinct by 2050. Biodiversity provides many ecosystem services that are often not readily visible. It plays an essential part in regulating the chemistry of our atmosphere, pollinating crops and generating water supply. Biodiversity is directly involved in recycling nutrients and providing fertile soils. Experiments with controlled environments have shown that humans cannot easily build ecosystems to support human needs; for example insect pollination cannot be mimicked by man-made construction. The total value of ecosystem services may amount to trillions of dollars in ecosystem services per annum to mankind. For example, one segment of North American forests has been assigned an annual value of 250 billion dollars; as another example, honey-bee pollination, a small segment of ecosystem services, is estimated to provide between 10 and 18 billion dollars of value per annum. The value of ecosystem services on one New Zealand Island has been imputed to be as great as the GDP of that region.

With the above information as a frame of reference it seems that it would be behooving of nations as a collective to embrace the idea of the reality of global warming and to try and pull their collective resources to together to try and alter its course.  Conservation biologists trace the ethics that guide their work back to early spiritual philosophies, including the Tao, Shinto, Hindu, Islamic and Buddhist traditions. In the West, origins of concern for the destruction of the natural environment by man can be traced to Plato; however, modern roots of conservation biology can be found in the late 18th century Enlightenment period particularly in England and Scotland. A number of thinkers, among them notably Lord Monboddo, described the importance of “preserving nature”; much of this early emphasis had its origins in Christian theology. By the early 1800s biogeography was ignited through efforts of Von Humboldt, DeCandolle, Lyell and Darwin; their efforts, while important in relating species to their environments, fell short of actual conservation. (Fraker)  Thus, the efforts to try and curtail any permanent damage to the ozone and the environment have been occurring for two hundred plus years.   Although such assignments of change have been in focus in the mindset of scientists, and naturalists, it is a reality that not enough has been done to stop the problem of global warming, or global climate change.  The detriment to the environment is one in which the entire planet needs to be privy to, and needs to change.

Another major issue of global warming that comes up in most debates on the subject is the melting of the polar ice caps.  This glacier melting is in reference to a fjord, Müller Ice Shelf, which is part of the Antarctic Peninsula.  The concern over the melting of this ice cap and the relevance it has to global warming can be seen in the figures of its progressive melting, ‘1200 square mile section early in 2002′ (World View of Global Warming paragraph one).

The glaciers are not the only ‘proof’ of global warming, it can also be witnessed in Alaska with the tundra changing fifteen years ago to now in which the statistics show that the temperature has increased 0.5 to 1.5 degrees Celsius (World View of Global Warming paragraph three).  Even mountain glaciers are beginning to show signs of melting as can be seen with the Broggi glacier in the Andes where the photographs comparable from 1932 to 1999 are drastic in the glaciers obvious shrinkage.

The term conservation came into use in the late 19th century and referred to the management, mainly for economic reasons, of such natural resources as timber, fish, game, topsoil, pastureland, and minerals, and also to the preservation of forests (see forestry), wildlife (see wildlife refuge), parkland, wilderness, and watersheds. Western Europe was the source of much 19th century progress for conservation biology, particularly the British Empire; however, the United States began making sizable contributions to this field starting with thinking of Thoreau and taking form in the United States Congress passing the Forest Act of 1891, John Muir’s work and the founding of the Sierra Club in 1895, founding of the New York Zoological Society in 1895 and establishment of a series of national forests and preserves by Theodore Roosevelt from 1901 to 1909.In the early 20th century the New York Zoological Society was instrumental in developing concepts of establishing preserves for particular species and conducting the necessary conservation studies to determine the suitability of specific locations that are most appropriate as conservation priorities; the work of Henry Fairfield Osborn Jr., Archie Carr and Archie Carr III is notable in this era. (Fraker)  Again, a person can see that efforts have been around for a long time to try and preserve the planet, but with the onset of the Industrial Revolution and the continual harm to the environment since then, more pro-active approaches need to be instilled in the policy making and the politics of countries.

By the early 1970s national and international governmental agencies became more active in the conservation of biodiversity. Notably the United Nations acted to conserve sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of mankind. The programme was adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO in 1972. As of 2006, a total of 830 sites are listed: 644 cultural, 162 natural. The first country to pursue aggressive biological conservation through national legislation was the USA, which passed back to back legislation in the Endangered Species Act(1966) and National Environmental Policy Act (1970), which together injected major funding and protection measures to large scale habitat protection and threatened species research.By 1992 most of the countries of the world had become committed to the principles of conservation of biological diversity with the Convention on Biological Diversity; subsequently many countries began programmes of Biodiversity Action Plans to identify and conserve threatened species within their borders, as well as protect associated habitats. The science of ecology has clarified the workings of the biosphere; i.e., the complex interrelationships among humans, other species, and the physical environment; moreover, the burgeoning human population, and associated agriculture, industry and its ensuing pollution have demonstrated how easily ecological relationships can be disrupted.

In my opinion global warming is a serious threat.  There have been documented studies as to the future effects of air pollutants and how this will change the overall global temperature to such an unprecedented rate that many land masses will be consumed by the ocean.  There are simple measures to take presently to counteract the potential of this disaster.  As a global community we must reuse, reduce and recycle.  Green cars a great way to enact this initiative.  Living a more self-sufficient life is another way.

Global warming is a serious threat to humanity.  Already there have been changes in global weather such as the hurricanes, tsunamis, and other drastic weather changes around the globe.  Since this is global warming in my opinion it is necessary to deal with the problem not just locally but to involve the world, to create a breadth of awareness which spans beyond the borders of countries.  Global warming began with the rise of the industrial age, it is up to a new age, one built with conservation in mind that will be the ultimate cure for any future devastations which will occur with global warming.

Work Cited

Beyerl, Tammie R., Davis J. Gibson, Mark A. Basinger and Jody P.Shimp.  Habitat and life history characteristics of Dioscorea oppositifolia L., an invasive exotic plant species, in southern Illinois. Department of Plant Biology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois., 2000, 27^th Annual Natural Areas Conference.

Becker, Randall J. Future agency partenerin initiatives in naturalarea/ecosystem management. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Littlee rock District, 700 West Capital, Little Rock, Arkansas. 2000, 27^th Annual Natural Areas Conference

Borneman, David G. “Its not that easy being green” and other lamentations of a city Natural Areas Program. City of Ann Arbor ,Parks and Recreation department, Natural Area Preservation Divisiom, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 2000, 27^th Annual Natural Areas Conference

Borneman, David G. Teach me to restore and I will be safe for life lifetime. Natural Areas Program. City of Ann Arbor ,Parks and Recreation department, Natural Area Preservation Divisiom, Ann Arbor, Michigan2000, 27^th Annual Natural Areas Conference

Frankland, Faye A. and Thomas A. Nelson. Monitoring the impacts of deer on wildflower communities. Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, Illinois. 2000, 27^th Annual Natural Areas Conference

Fraker, Guy. Land Trusts and the role of The Nature Conservancy. The Nature Conservancy, Illinois Chapter, Illinoi. 2000, 27^th Annual Natural Areas Conference

Glazer, Alexander N. University of California Natural Reserve System(UC NRS) University of California, Office of the President, Oakland, California. 2000, 27^th Annual Natural Areas Conference2000, 27^th Annual Natural Areas Conference

Mauger, David, Thomas P.Wilson and Donald M. Stillwaugh Jr. Translocation of spotted Turtles to Lockport and Romeoville prarie Nature preserves. Forest Preserve District of Will County. Illinos and Department of Biology, george Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia. 2000, 27^th Annual Natural Areas Conference

McFall, Don. 300 Illinois Nature Preserves, an overview of the Illinois Nature Preserve Commission and its system of protected areas. Illinois nature Preserve Commission, Springfield, Illinois. 2000, 27^th Annual Natural Areas Conference

Ross.Laurel M. Chicago Wilderness:challenges for the future. The Nature Conservancy, Illinois Chapter, Chicago, Illinois. 2000, 27^th Annual Natural Areas Conference.

As concern over the effects of global warming spreads (forgive the pun) like wildfire, the importance of urban forests is coming to the forefront of social policies.  Already two states have invoked “tree warden” laws and have begun a systematic management of their urban forests, Massachusetts and Connecticut, with other states considering such measures.  But why are urban forests so important?

Urban forests play important roles in our urban ecosystems, including but not limited to flood control, soil stabilization and carbon dioxide absorption.  Cities containing only limited urban forests or lack them entirely also show a propensity for higher temperatures.  The reason for this effect is quite simple.  Urban forests convert solar rays into potential chemical energy rather than infrared (heat) radiation that is emitted back into the atmosphere as the heated surfaces cool.  Advocates for urban forests point to this effect as the responsible factor in the creation of urban “heat islands.”

There has been much debate over this issue.  A fairly recent investigation into the urban heat island phenomenon declared there was no such thing, but advocates have accused the researchers of improperly conducting their investigation with poor testing location selection and limited data collection (the experimental data was gathered at night with comparative numbers gathered within the limits of a suburban community which also did not have an urban forest).

• Other than the lack of urban forests, what factors might contribute to urban heat islands?  How do these factors contrast to the effects of weak or absent urban forests?  Can urban forests help in mitigating the effects from these additional factors?
• Other than heat island mitigation, what additional benefits do urban forests provide to the cities in which they are found?
• What is a tree warden and how does his or her presence assist in the health and management of urban forests?

Topics such as the value and effects of urban forests can be complex, requiring the skills of dedicated, experienced researchers to locate the necessary information and often to evaluate the significance of such information.  Fortunately, our staff of dedicated and highly talented writers is ready to assist you in this matter.

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Global warming is without a doubt one of the hot topics for academic essays, particularly in the fields of environmental science and climatology.  Global warming is the gradual, upward trend of global average temperatures which, as noted in the 1950s by scientists, appears to be closely related to the dramatic increase in carbon dioxide and methane emissions since the beginning of the American industrial revolution.

The number of potential topics related to global warming seems almost endless, with many possible avenues for original thought and argument.  Though the basic fact our world is warming is now considered old news to the scientific community, the causes of global warming and, perhaps more importantly, the effects it will have on our world and society are still being debated.

Over the past twenty years there have been many documentaries and speculative works of fiction produced which include various theories of how global warming will affect our world.  From documentaries such as “After the Warming” by noted British reporter James Burke to movies like “The Day After Tomorrow,” the impact of global warming is already being felt in our social and cultural identity in addition to the associated climate changes we are seeing around the world.

Essays on global warming can be very diverse in their topic.  Every essay begins with a question indicating what is to be answered or learned from the content of the essay.  Some of the questions one might cover under an essay on global warming might be:

• Many scientists cite a buildup of greenhouse gases as being responsible, in part, for the creation of global warming.  What are greenhouse gases and how do they relate to global warming?  What actions can we, as an advanced society, take to reduce them and/or their associated effects on our environment?
• Some scientists argue that we do not know what is really behind global warming and insist that further research is necessary.  Are there potential contributing factors affecting global warming that have been overlooked or dismissed that should be reexamined?  What effects do these marginalized factors have on global warming and can this new information be used to our advantage?
• Some climatologists have expressed concern that the current trend in global warming may set off adverse positive feedback loops, causing global warming to accelerate suddenly at some future point.  What are adverse feedback loops, how does the concept apply to global warming, and how realistic are the fears expressed by these scientists?
• Scientists have warned that as global warming continues, there are going to be serious effects on our economic infrastructure.   Others say the steps we are taking to address global warming will have greater adverse effects than global warming itself will cause.  Some of these predicted effects will be indirect as we continue our attempts to adjust our economy and society to the reality of global warming, others will be more direct.  What are these effects, how serious could they become, and what actions can we take to mitigate the damage to or handicapping of our economy as a result of these effects?
• A decade ago, scientists predicted that one symptom of accelerating global warming would be the collapse of glacial formations around the world, most notably in the Arctic and Antarctic regions.  What is the current status of glaciers around the world, how is global warming affecting them and how accurate were the predictions of the scientists?

The causes and effects of global warming, as we can see, are diverse, giving students plenty of room for thought, creativity and originality in the completion of their academic assignments.  Students need but look at the news over the past decade to get ideas on the topic.

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