Reasons for High Rate of Women Violence and Measures to Prevent Violence against Women

Battering is a kind of behavior that is employed by those in an intimate relationship on either party with an aim of obtaining power or control over the other. Such relational orientation is often administered in form of fear, intimidation, abuse, or use of violence (Copelon, 2005). Battering is considered to be a form of domestic violence that has widely affected women in the modern society and internationally. Women battering currently occur in different forms which include emotional abuse, economic abuse, sexual abuse, threats, intimidation, isolation, and other behaviors whose aim is deprive women of power (Kesselman, McNair & Schniedewind, 2008). Resolving the problem of women battering/violence depend on identifying the cause of such form of criminal offence. This paper therefore investigates the cause of high rate of violence against women and the possible measures that can be taken to help prevent such crime.

Cause of Rise in Violence against Women

Most violence against women results from what people learn within their environment especially during the early stages of life.  Children who are brought up in violent prone families tend to portray violence in their future lives. Such might be due to childhood experiences such as observing domestic violence and being a victim of either physical or sexual abuse. Children brought up in violent atmospheres tend to associated or construe violence as a means of resolving conflict. Moreover, children also learn to assert their manhood in their future families based on their childhood encounter and experiences (Copelon, 2005).

The rise in violence against women has been linked to unstable economic patterns in various families. Most families are usually faced with challenge of adjusting to economic changes resulting from globalization and adjustment patterns. Such patterns often expose families to unemployment, poverty, hardship, and income inequality (Copelon, 2005). Such experiences have made some family members especially the father become vulnerable to stress and alcohol abuse. Beside increase in violence against women, risk factors such as alcohol and drug abuse have made women to economically depend on their partners.

Certain cultural ideologies such as chastening and beating of wives by their husbands have been used by some men to batter their partners (Kesselman et al., 2008). In the olden traditions and regions, certain loop-holes were used by men to physically punish their wives. In such traditions, women were considered as male properties. Copelon (2005) cited that consequently, men were responsible in making decisions, had control of family wealth, and control of women’s sexuality. Such notions have still crowded human society and contributed significantly to rise in violence against women.

The other cause of rise in violence against women is excessive use of drugs such as alcohol. Often men who are drug addicts are easily provoked, aggressive, and generally violent to their partners. Moreover, absence of legal protective measures within the homes to protect women against battering and to enact the right of women has result to rise in women battering (Kesselman et al., 2008).

Prevention of Violence against Women

Laws should be enacted by States to protect the rights of women both at community and within the home environments. Such laws would be essential in protecting the rights of women on offences occurring within the sanctity of their homes.  Moreover, laws to combat violence against women are required since battering is a violation of human rights. Similarly, law should accord men and women equal treatment and protection. With such laws, there would be equality and equal treatment of women and men without discrimination (Copelon, 2005).

The government and the civil society should cooperate to combat violence against women (Kesselman et al., 2008). Such initiative could involve breaking the odd to allow the police to enter into private premises whenever there is need to help protect women from battering. Lastly, through training and community support services, the domestic violence and the trauma associated by it can be used as evidence for criminal offence. Such measure calls for training of police, prosecutors, judges, and magistrates on how to offer appropriate intervention services to the victim-survivors of domestic violence (Kesselman et al., 2008).

In conclusion, women battering are a form of violence against women. Although such violence takes many forms, they often manifest in unequal power relations between men and women. Resolving such form of violence calls for the government’s intervention and appropriate laws and community programs that can help protect and ensure equality in women me in general.

Reference

Copelon, R. (2005). Rape and gender violence: from impunity to accountability in international law. Violence against Women.

Kesselman, A., McNair, L. D., & Schniedewind, N. (2008). Women: images and realities, a multicultural anthology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies.

Plato is one of the great creators of philosophy, writing, the arts, and mathematics. His entire life has been to contributing change in the way we think and communicate. Even though his time has passed the theories he created lives on in legacy. Plato wrote over thirty dialogues expressing the way of life with the teachings of his successor Socrates. With the historical records that have been collected, I will summarize his life and analysis of what I believe to be his key contributions to the way we view the world around us today.

Historical records suggest that the real name of Plato is Aristocles, named after his grandfather. But his wrestling coach gave him the name “Platon” which is famous even till today. According to the historical data, dating from the Alexandrian period, Plato was given the name “Platon”, which means “breadth” due to his vigorous physical appearance. Plato had been instructed in gymnastics, music and grammar by the most distinguished teachers of that time (Platthy). Even before Plato met Socrates he had attended several courses in philosophy. In his philosophy courses he first became acquainted with Cratylus, who was a disciple of Heraclitus a prominent pre-Socratic Greek philosopher, and the Heraclitean doctrines (Kraut).

Plato’s definite birth time and place cannot be determined by the available historical data. But it can be said with certainty that he belonged to an influential and aristocratic family. Based on the historical data, many modern scholars suggest that Plato was either born in Aegina or Athens between the years 429 BC to 423 BC. Plato’s father name was Ariston and his mother’s name was Perictione. A few historical records suggest that Ariston traced his ancestors from Codrus, the king of Athens, and Melanthus, the king of Messenia. On the other hand Plato’s maternal family was famous for their relationship with Solon, the Athenian lawmaker and poet. Ariston and Perictione had two sons; Adeimantus and Glaucon, and a daughter; Potone, other than himself. Potone was the mother of Speusippus who became the successor of Plato as the head of the philosophical Academy (Dillon).

Historical records suggest that the biological father of Plato, Ariston, died in Plato’s childhood but the precise dating of his date cannot be determined. After Ariston’s death Perictione remarried Pyrilampes who was her mother’s brother. Pyrilampes was in himself a very influential man; on numerous occasions he served as an ambassador to the Persian court and he was a personal friend of Pericles; the leader of the Athenian democratic fraction. Although in the Platonic dialogues Plato is silence about himself but he introduced many of his relatives in his dialogues (Clay). As a matter of fact these dialogues are one of the sources from where the family tree of Plato is constructed. The family tree of Plato suggests a considerable amount of family pride. In the opening scenes of the dialogue Charmides, Plato glorifies his family and their deep rooted connections with the most influential personalities of their time (Hare). These dialogues are a memorial to the happier days of his family and Socrates.

Plato traveled in Cyrene, Egypt, Italy and Sicily and returned to Athens when he was forty years old. When he returned to the city of Athens he founded of the earliest known organized schools in Western Civilization. The school was known as Academy and it was a large enclosure of ground which was at one point in time the property of a citizen named Academus. The Academy remained operational until 529 AD when it was closed down by Justinian I of Byzantium. Justinian closed the Academy in an attempt to protect himself because he viewed the Academy as a threat; that it would be used for the propagation of Christian religions. Many intellectuals and numerous great minds of the era were schooled in the Academy. The most prominent of all the students was Aristotle.

Historical records suggest that Plato initially visited Syracuse while it was under the rule of Dionysus. During Plato’s first trip he accepted Dion of Syracuse the brother-in-law of Dionysus, as one of his disciples. But certain events changed all this, Dion turned against Plato; he was sold into slavery and almost died in Cyrene. After sometime an admirer of Plato bought for him his freedom and sent him back to Athens.

Years later Dion himself requested Plato to tutor Dionysus II to become a philosopher king. Plato accepted the offer and started teaching Dionysus II. Dionysus II started to accept Plato’s teaching but he started to detest his uncle, Dionysus. At some point in time he expelled Dion and retained Plato against his will. Eventually Plato managed to leave the Syracuse. In later years Dion returned to Syracuse and deposed Dionysus and usurped his position, shortly after a fellow disciple of Plato usurped the ruling position of Syracuse. Thus Plato was entangled in the political circus of Syracuse throughout the later years of his life (Brumbaugh).

A few central themes can be found in Plato’s work. These central themes serve as the central ideologies which Plato constantly revisits. Almost every work of Plato is, in one way or another, dependent upon his distinction. A majority of which investigate into the ethical and practical consequences of considering of reality in a bifurcated way. Plato’s work compels its readers to transform the values by understanding the reality of Forms and incompetence of the real world. Plato considers, the soul and the object, two completely different things, Plato’s views suggest that the soul does not even depend on the existence of the object itself and its functioning. As a matter of fact a soul can grasp the nature of the Forms when it is unhindered by any of its attachments (Lodge). Furthermore, in a few of his works, he suggests that soul is always able to recollect what it grasped of the Forms once it is disembodies and the lives of the body are either rewards or punishments for the choices which the soul made in the previous existence.

Plato has contributed greatly to the theory of art; particularly in architecture, dance, drama, poetry and music. He also discussed a wide range of philosophical topics encompassing politics, ethics, metaphysics where the topics of focus were man, mind, Realism and immortality. Furthermore he also discussed the philosophies of mathematics and philosophies of religion. According to Plato’s Theory of Forms, he rejected the deceptive and ever changing world which we know of through the use of our sensory proposing. Instead his world of ideas was true. In addition to all of these works Plato talks about geometrical diagrams that they are flawed replication of perfect mathematical objects. Moreover Plato also contributed to the fields of legal philosophy, logic and rhetoric.

Even though Plato did not make any mathematical discoveries himself, he held a strong conviction that mathematics enables us the mind to indulge in the finest training. Plato’s contribution to the philosophies of education can be seen by observing how he ran the Academy. Plato is always determined to work on the idea of “proof”, thus he insisted upon clear and precise definitions and hypotheses. This Platonic approach laid down the fundamentals of Euclid’s systematic approach to mathematics. The historical records suggest that these mathematical guidelines provided by Plato served as a beacon of light for many others. And since almost all of the important mathematical work was completed by either the friends or pupils of Plato this suggests the effectiveness of Plato’s contribution to mathematics.

Plato was able to create a structure or subject matter for philosophy by formulating and arguing over a wide range of metaphysical and ethical questions. To explain the symmetry amongst many objects, he developed metaphysics of Forms. Platonic view regarding the ethical questions is rooted in this metaphysics of Forms via the study of the Form of “good”. Therefore Plato is responsible for finding a linkage between metaphysics and ethics. In his greatest work, the Republic, Plato developed a perceptive analogy between an individual and the state. In his dialogues Plato argues upon the nature of virtues and he also ponders upon several epistemological questions.

Plato is, by any standards of measurement, one of the most recognized writers in the Western literature. He is also undoubtedly the most influential and penetrating authors in the field of philosophy. He was an Athenian citizen of high social status. His prime focus was on the political events and the intellectual engagements of his time but he has raised very profound questions from these events. Furthermore he has also provided richly suggestive answers to such problems, these questions and answer of Plato are so provocative that almost every educated reader in every time period can’t help but to be influenced by Plato and more importantly his philosophies. In almost every age there were many philosophers who called themselves Platonists; this point alone attests to the greatness of Plato’s work.

Although he was not the first scholar who formulated innovative theories but he definitely was the first philosopher whose work and philosophies are based on rigorous and systematic examinations of his surroundings. His philosophies encompasses numerous and diversified field of interest; some of these fields include ethics, politics, metaphysics and epistemological issues, yet his work has proved to be valuable addition to such fields of study. Plato, with his extraordinary work, had created such a place in history which only a few handful other philosophers can contend to.

Work Cited Page

Brumbaugh, Robert Sherrick. Plato for the modern age. University Press of America, 1991.

Clay, Diskin. Platonic questions: dialogues with the silent philosopher. Penn State Press, 2000.

Dillon, John. The Heirs of Plato: A Study of the Old Academy (347-274 BC). Oxford University Press, 2005.

Hare, Richard Mervyn. Plato. Oxford University Press, 1982.

Kraut, Richard. The Cambridge companion to Plato. Cambridge University Press, 1992.

Lodge, Rupert Clendon. The Philosophy of Plato. Routledge, 2000.

Platthy, Jenő. Plato: a critical biography . Federation of International Poetry Associations of UNESCO, 1990.

Economics Is Where You (Tube) Find It – The Ardi Rizal Story

What harm could there be in a pack of cigarette?  Though people in the western world are well versed in the threats cigarettes pose from a health standpoint, their threat does not end there.  In an ITN (International Television News) broadcast on May 28th, 2010, the world was appalled to learn of a 2 year old child in Sumatra, Indonesia who was addicted to cigarettes.  The young boy, Ardi Rizal, was introduced to smoking at the age of eighteen months by his father (.  Aside from the controversy of a 2 year old child smoking two packs a day, this story has significant economic overtones and stands as a prime example of Bastiat’s Parable of the Broken Window (Mankiw 2009, p. 15 and Bastiat 2007, pp. 2-4), particularly when we take Carabini’s (2009) view of Bastiat not going far enough in his evaluation of the fallacy.  Examination of this news story using Mankiw’s Principles of Macroeconomics (Mankiw 2009, pp. 4-14) as a guideline allows the demonstration that analysis of Aldi’s story exposes the interactive dynamics of multiple economic concepts.

According to the 1999 Indonesia Special Report (Washington Post June 1999), the average annual income in 1996 was only $3,300 per year.  By 2009, the CIA estimated that this had grown, but only to approximately $4,000 per year (CIA 2010).  This indicates a dire need for economic growth and opportunity (Mankiw’s 8th economic principle, standard of living relies on the ability to produce goods and services, pg. 12) which, in a manner, Aldi represented for his village.  Aldi’s addiction gave in a position of status as a tourist attraction, drawing people from around Indonesia who marveled at his two-pack-a-day habit.  This spectacle benefited the village from the tourist travel thru the village (what we can identify as Bastiat’s “that which is seen”) However, to support this, Aldi’s father had to pay approximately five dollars a day to support his son’s cigarette habit.  This unseen effect of Aldi’s fame equates to the unseen effects of the broken window in Bastiat’s parable and represents a fundamental economic tradeoff between food and clothing for the family and supporting the economic conditions of the entire village (illustrating Mankiw’s 1st and 2nd economic principles, trade-offs and cost of goods, pp. 4-5).

Expanding on the “benefits,” note is taken that Aldi is not alone in his addiction.  Indonesia has little to no regulations controlling the tobacco industry in the region.  It is not uncommon to see children as young as five and six casually smoking under the trees of any particular village with 30 percent starting by the age of 10 (CBS 2010).  Argument could be made that this “market” significantly supports the tobacco industry, driving demand for cigarettes upward and subsequently maintaining employment for many parents of those children.  Loss of this market would drive demand downward, potentially triggering an increase in unemployment as the tobacco industry responds to the decreased demand for cigarettes, but would reduce the need for government sponsored rehabilitation and child protection projects such as Indonesia’s National Commission for Child Protection (Mankiw’s 10th economic principle, short-term trade-offs between inflation and unemployment, p. 14).  The inflation in this case is the cost of the government sponsored rehabilitation and child protection services, paid for with taxpayer revenues.

Though under the care of the Commission Aldi has been successfully rehabilitated, the potential economic impacts of the trend Aldi has been a part of may not fully be recognized for decades.  As Carabini (2009) argued, many costs associated with the broken window fallacy do not initially appear to be related to the cause.  In Aldi’s case, as cigarette smoking becomes increasingly widespread and the age at which individuals begin smoking decreases, Indonesia is set to see smoking related conditions set in at younger and younger ages.  This means that two significant economic trends lay in the future.  The first is the escalating costs of smoking related health care including emphysema (Fessler, Reilly and Sugarbaker 2003, pg. 40), cancer and heart disease (Haustein and Groneberg 2009) which, due to the decreasing smoking ages, will hit with the force of an economic tsunami.  While this would represent significant revenue for the health care industry, it would represent a dramatic drain on other areas of the economy (demonstrating once again the effects of Mankiw’s 1st economic principle, tradeoffs, p. 4).  The second trend, which even those who recognize the first have seldom spoken, is the decreased manpower available to maintain the economic strength of the country due to the number inhibited or incapacitated by smoking-related illnesses, a trend the CEO of the Child Protection Commission equates to genocide (CBS 2010) and which will compromise Indonesia’s long-term ability to produce goods and services (Mankiw’s 8th economic principle, quality of life depends on the ability to produce goods and services, p. 12).

As shown, what seems like a minor (perhaps even beneficial) situation may have dire consequences that, on first glance, are not apparent.  While the trend of children joining their parents as smokers may have visible benefits (tobacco industry jobs and profits), the unseen consequences (rehabilitation costs, long-term medical costs and loss of labor force) more than outweigh the benefits.  Thus, even in situations we might not normally consider economic such as a seemingly innocuous story of a two-year-old chain smoker, the principles of economics are a part of everyday life.

Resources

Bastiat, Frederic (2007)  Bastiat Collection (2 Volume Set).  Auburn, Alabama: Ludwig von Mises Institute.

CBS News (Sept 2nd, 2010) “’Smoking Baby’ Stops Smoking – But Can It Last?”  The Early Show.  Retrieved Nov 15th, 2010 from http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2010/09/02/earlyshow/living/parenting/main6828957.shtml

Carabini, Louis E. (Winter 2007) “Bastiat Does  Not Go Far Enough.”  Journal of Libertarian Studies.  (21:4).

Fessler, Henry E., Reilly, John J. (Jr.), Sugarbaker, David J. (2004)  Lung Volume Reduction Surgery for Emphysema.  New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Haustein, Knut-Olaf and Groneberg, David (2010)  Tobacco or Health?:  Physiological and Social Damages Caused by Tobacco Smoking.  Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.

ITN (2010) “Indonesian baby on 40 cigarettes a day.”  YouTube. Retrieved Nov 15th, 2010 from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x4c_wI6kQyE

Mankiw, N. Gregory (2009) Principles of Macroeconomics.  Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning.

Washington Post (June 1999) “Indonesia Report: Overview.” Indonesia Special Report.  Retrieved Nov 18th, 2010 from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/indonesia/overview.htm

CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) (2010) “Indonesia.”  The World Factbook.  Retrieved Nov. 18th, 2010 from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/id.html

JERRY STEVENSON – ZENITH HEALTHCARE   CASE STUDY

Managing business enterprises is exceptionally valuable towards making an organization successful. This becomes the best approach that will lead to better and efficient management of any health care institution. This paper is an analysis of a case study that focuses on business activities of Jerry Stevenson, a 38-year old medical doctor who inherited a large legacy from his grandfather. The paper also answers a set of questions that are relevant to the case study, and offers recommendations to a number of issues affecting the business enterprise.

Introduction

In any kind of organization, all dimensions of business management are quite significant since they play a major role towards the overall achievement of the given business or organization (Mahadevan, 2008, p 26).When the issue of management is being discussed concerning a given business or any other kind of organization, it is very important to think of the manner in which the operation will be coordinated and thus, employ the necessary personnel and practices which shall promote the performance of the organization.

Business start up

Venturing into new business and market frontiers like UK requires extensive understanding of the environment in terms of the political establishment, business potential, legal and regulatory framework, and availability of resources, socio-cultural aspects and to an extent geographical position and infrastructural development of the country. The research and analysis of these key and crucial factors are important in analyzing the potential and business environment of starting up a business. In regard to starting up business in the private healthcare sector, UK possesses unique features and characteristics which are different from any other nation and it is therefore, essential to scan and research the market.

When starting a business, startup operations are very important because they play a very big role in ensuring that the business objectives and goals of the business have been successfully obtained. For instance, it is quite necessary to have good business plan   structures within any given business organization that is what shall promote performance within the given organization. A business plan can be defined as a useful tool used to guide the operations and moves of the business especially when starting one. In the event of starting a business; one is required to have a business idea that enables one to manage his business activities effectively (Schneider, Brief & Guzzo, 1996, p 38).

Jerry should prepare a business plan that would see his business concepts become incorporated into practice. According to business planners, this kind of approach is necessary in that; it ensures the provision of the best of services thus, gain of reputation in the kind of business engaged in. The proposed model should establish his business structures, mode of operations and activities. The business model graph once initiated should represent the necessary approaches capable of improving the business performance. The first thing to consider when operating a Locum agency (health care clinic) business is the inputs and risks related to this business.

Once the above has been analyzed as presented in the model, the next thing is to devise the unique strategies to be applied in the business. There are several strategies to be addressed during this stage. These include marketing, human resource, customer service, and financial management. The marketing approach of the business should be clearly defined and organized. Financial allocation or management is also needed at this stage and should be done in the right manner. A health care complex is capable of incurring a lot of operational costs and needs. Has the owner of the business, Jerry should therefore be in a position of monitoring the operations of the business. In relation to management and financial plan, the business will be managed by Jerry himself. The company or business will earn its revenue from the sale of its services, which include health care services, counseling and any other service related to the provision of health care.

In the private sector, during business startup, strategy like decision making and managerial operations need to be appropriately coordinated. Good customer-worker relationship should as well be encouraged. Once the above business approaches have been properly coordinated and performed, the next important thing is to weigh the effectiveness of the outcome (Porter, 1980, p 34). As it is said, ‘the end should reflect the means,’ it will be necessary to examine the business performance or outcome. Any gains will be noted, and areas that need improvement will have to be addressed. The final gains will determine the need of going back to start and work out things from scratch for the benefit of the business. Feedback is necessary to improve the major areas that are unresponsive to the performance of the clinic business. For a health care clinic start-up, the business model can be applied to take the business places and improve profits gain.

Performance review of Zenith healthcare

The demand for health care in UK increased steadily; looking at the period between 2004 and 2008, the health sector industry has generated total revenues of $386.8 billion in 2008.  This represents a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 3.1% from the 2004 total industry revenue of $342.6 billion.  The current forecast performance of the industry is set to accelerate marginally, with an anticipated CAGR of 3.4% for the five-year period 2008-2013.  This is expected to drive the industry to a value of $456.3 billion by the end of 2013.  This profitability, however, will not 25 % solely come from private health care clinics; some players within this industry have diversified their product offerings into other markets such as cosmetic surgery and weigh loss management.

In order to promote efficient management and productivity of any   given business, the most precise and superlative approach will be in coming up with a system of managing quality and presentation, through which all the individuals in the institution or organization will be mentored towards such a development. Businesses organizations are required to be reviewed regularly to establish the progress of the business and to identify   how the institution can make the most of the market position they have established for themselves, and to decide where to take the business next. During the first review of Jerry business – ZENITH HEALTHCARE, the operations of the business where viewed to be doing well in accordance with the business plan.

At the moment, the company’s turnover is £2.5 million, and it is anticipated to double in the next twenty four months. With this figures, the company has been able to pay its staff an annual salary of between £40,000 to £50,000 per annum each. These figures show that the business has potential of growing even more. With the entry of foreign healthcare companies that have begun to express interest in entering the UK hospital sector, this business may also benefit from management concepts provided by these healthcare establishments: where they recruit, staff, and manage medical personnel, and are responsible for the operation of the medical facilities they manage.

With the analysis, the business would be reviewed to be doing significantly well, and it has been seen to have potential of growth. If to remain competitive in the business, the business should address the issue of failed management especially on financial management, unwarranted high salaries to the unqualified staff, and check on education level of its staff.

Looking at Porter’s generic strategy topologies, the clinic as a business is best matched with the differentiation strategy (no focus) from a large business perspective.  The company is proficient from a technical innovation standpoint and has used this ability to develop services and technologies that are marketable to the entire healthcare industry. The company’s most notable strength is in the level of service it provides for its customers. By differentiating the level and quality of service from their competitors, customers are willing to pay more for Zenith healthcare service offerings.

Zenith healthcare strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT analysis)

Towards the realization of the stated goals and objectives, the institution strengths and weaknesses are of great importance in determining the business development. The concept of SWOT analysis is used to establish the business profitability, whereby it assists in identifying the business Strengths, Weakness, Threats and Opportunities. This kind of analysis and the plan is necessary in ensuring that appropriate engagements have been put in place, which provides necessary engagements that make it possible to realize appropriate management and performances within the business (Sioukas, 2003, p 16).

After analysis, the institution strengths where established to be: – Strong local recognition, tremendous customer service, vast private care offerings, and rapid service deployment center. The health clinic is synonymous with health care provision and remains the largest player in the local market. Another important strength of the business is that it is managed by a health care practitioner who has more than 15 years experience.

The business has a few weaknesses including ineffective management, slowdowns in revenue growth, and heavy reliant on U.K. market. Despite global expansion, the clinic is still too reliant on the U.K based clients for much of their business. Another weakness identified in the business is that, the majority of employees do not have any formal higher academic qualifications. Also the business workload has increased significantly hence, the existing staff feel that there are being overworked hence there is a need for additional manpower.

Zenith Healthcare also posses several threats that include: – increased competition; economic downturn; inflation; new or changing laws, and innovative services. Increased competition can threaten the business success, and this is enshrined by the entrance of foreign American companies that specialize in health care privatization. Another inherent threat of the business is the idea of employees toying with the concept of share options. Since the business is a sole proprietorship, any idea of partnership will eventually affect the company’s strategies in relation to growth and development, and the company may not be in a state to rally its goals and objectives. Another threat relate to sensitivity to health of the economy.  While there are some promising signs of economic recovery, fears remain about a double-dip recession or a cascade effect of economic troubles emanating from Europe.   As a U.K institution, any effect on the economy as a whole will be immediately felt at the business.

The most inherent opportunity for the business is on expansion. At a local party, Jerry was offered a chance by a venture capitalist (VC) to acquire a business similar to Zenith healthcare or sell it. The business also has several opportunities that include potential increase in client number, offer unique health care services, exploit social media, and differentiate further. With rapid growth in health care systems and health care reforms, need for health care in the country has increased tremendously and opened an opportunity for Zenith Healthcare (Schneider, Brief & Guzzo, 1996, p 59).

SW/OT Matrix

Strategic plan that will capitalize on the company’s strengths, and overcome its weaknesses

For Zenith healthcare, a strategic plan is very vital in that it acts as a blueprint that helps the business to meet its goals and objectives. The adequacy of the business strategic plan is only determined by the goals it helps to achieve for the organization. The plan should derive a reputable foundation and framework for the business’s performance. For the success of Zenith Healthcare, there should be the need of establishing a workable and achievable strategic plan which would capitalize on the company’s strengths, and overcome its weaknesses.

Zenith Health care can initiate a plan that increases the business local presence, by both organic and inorganic expansion through leveraging brand-recognition, and reducing threats of smaller competition. The business can gain greater market presence through acquisition of local, smaller clinics and increased competitive dexterity with primary competitors.

Another strategic plan that the business can adopt is the alternative of increasing manpower and customer base (Stokes, Wilson & Wilson, 2000, p 23).This concept can increase competitiveness in opposition to large competitors and inflate market allocation resulting from diversified and larger customer base. Conversely, Zenith Healthcare could see weaknesses such having unqualified staff, poor management and over reliance of local market getting reduced. With an expectation of a reasonable financial recovery, the activities of the business should concentrate on keeping expenditures to a minimum and selling the business or expansion should not be given much of attention at the moment since in the long run it will affect that focus. . If the plan fails to help achieve positive performance in the company, it means that it is inappropriate and needs amendments or improvements. Therefore, some of the possible recommendations include making the plan attainable and realistic, focusing on the matter of importance to the business and also making sure the plan is reviewed from time to time.

Whys in which the existing performance could be maintained and strengthened

The current business performance and operations can be maintained and strengthened by adopting the strategic plan that would be line with the company’s goals and objectives. This can be maintained by managing quality and performance strategies.

Performance can also be strengthened by adopting appropriate engagement and study which gives the topmost approaches capable of improving performance and making realization of goals much possible. This concept  enhance information derivation and give possible opinions and solutions which have the capacity of improving business performance and making realization of goals and objectives much possible (Mahadevan, 2008, p 44). For a business enterprise like Zenith Healthcare, the presentation of such kind of strategic plans is appropriate as it set the place for necessary approach which has the capability of improving performance and making realization of goals much possible. This also brings out an establishment on the major problems which have been faced within the business and also present possible solutions through which such problems will have to be addressed.

So as to be able to provide the best of performance in the business, there is something known as performance management which should be given the biggest consideration and such would be necessary as it will be able to present the best of approach which will lead to the best of performance within the operations of the business. Performance can also be maintained by hiring highly qualified employees, providing transparent rewards structure, and providing a policy on career progression (Schneider, Brief & Guzzo, 1996, p 98). Conclusively, In order to start a business in the UK, many factors should be put into consideration so as to ensure there is professional development of the business. Critical analysis, exploring and report writing is therefore important, considering the issue and thus, should be undertaken respectively.

New areas in which the business could be expanded

With diverse customer base and services, the business can be expanded by engaging in other activities that are worthwhile such as health consultancy services. As a renowned surgeon, Jerry can offer consultancy services to patients at a fee. Also the business can gain greater market presence through acquisition of local, smaller clinics which provide an opportunity for stable competitive advantage. With assistance from a venture capitalist (VC), Jerry can also open other establishments similar to Zenith healthcare.

The business venture can also develop e-business services. An e-business model will allow Zenith Healthcare to grow its local as well as it international customer base. This eliminates a weakness of slowdown in growth and enables the business to provide innovative services that minimize competition. The business can also be expanded by opening satellite clinics which offers services that are in line with the overall business goals and objectives.

Areas that need attention

Even though, the business is doing well in terms of revenue generation, there are other areas that need immediate attention.  Jerry does not give the business full attention it deserves, also the business has more than 5 permanent employees, but there is no one legitimately accountable of the daily operations. Sales increases alone do not mean anything much, when it is not aligned with cash (in) flow, because most of the time it leads to severe strain on the company’s overdraft.

Jerry still works full-time for the NHS as Consultant in General Surgery and this affects his role as the proprietor of Zenith Healthcare. If unable to handle the operations of the business, Jerry should hire and administrator who should be charged with the responsibility of manning the business in day to day activities. Regarding the possibility of floating shares, Jerry should view this prospect he regards as an issue, as an opportunity for growth and expansion for the reason that, high-operating capital will provide highly quality services and products.

Another area that need attention relate to delegation of duties in respect to ones qualifications and experience. Analysis shows that, most of the staff available do not have specific duties and they work as a team, where they specialize in marketing and sales, operations, recruitment, credentialing, scheduling, making presentations, Service Level Agreements, after-sales, client-account management, and site visits. In any business enterprise, delegation of duties is vital in that it promote professionalism and responsibility (Porter, 1980, p 44).

Business plan and incorporation of appropriate changes

Generally the main aim of any given business venture is to generate profits by serving customers and clients in an appropriate manner. Several procedures are usually applied to make sure such goals are realized. Business plan can be changed from time to time to conform to changes in business world. In regard to Jerry business plan, changes done will incorporate all the corrected issue affecting the business (Mahadevan, 2008, p 24).

It’s through the concepts of business planning where all the individuals in the institution or organization will be mentored towards such change development.

The rate of change in the business field has increased in recent years, and this rapid development is as a result of frequent innovations and advances in science and technology. Development in science and technology has made many health care clinics, including Zenith Healthcare to change old ways of dealing with health matters. The business plan should be redrafted in such a way that it include the changes made in the business for the entire period it has been in operation.

It is also necessary for Zenith Healthcare to carry out SWOT analysis to ensure both internal and external factors influencing the business performance have been assessed. Also, the new plan should include an attainable new mission, a realistic vision, and a genuine philosophy. Strategies, goals, programs and objectives should also be well defined in the plan (Sioukas, 2003, p 729).Once these measures are taken into consideration; definitely the business will achieve all its business objectives and goals.

Action plans to implement changes

In the business field there are very many concepts that businessmen can adopt to make their business better. One common way is through an action plan. When implementing changes in the business, it’s very important to analyze the present state of the business. Regardless of the reason for change, specific elements need to be in a position to implement those changes successfully (Stokes, Wilson & Wilson, 2000, p 24).

Changes in the organization are implemented following a laid down procedure that include; drafting of changes and passing them over to employees. This strategy helps employees to know the progress of the business. The second procedure of implementing change involves choosing individuals that will steer ahead the changes. The third procedure entails developing and designing a comprehensive plan of action. This stage is critical in the change process in that, it determine the specific changes that ought to be implemented. The exact timing of this process is very significant to the overall growth and development of the business. The final procedure of implementation of change involves the process of follow-up, which analyze results.

Effective implementation of changes brings about transformations in the company culture, systems and strategy. Effective implementation increase performance and productivity thus the organization is able to see majority of the employees getting the utmost remuneration from the very proficient management in the organization. Action plans in relation to changes in the organization ought to be sanguinely mentored so as to augment interrelated clusters while endorsing partnering. This will be the best approach towards ensuring that both employees and employer benefit from the working experience offered in the business.

Impact of changes in the business

If an organization adopts new behavior or idea, it is said to have gone through an organizational change. Definitively, organization change simply refers to transformations that occur in a business or organization. In technical terms it relates to situations where companies systems are disturbed by either internal or external forces. As a process, it involves adjustments of the organization structure or processes which at times can be good or bad. The concept of Change generally entails innovation, which involves the basic idea of introducing something new into the organization (Sioukas, 2003, p 76).

Change in an organization is very significant in that it ensures efficient and effective methods, and techniques are used in achieving the business goals and objectives. Changes in organizations assists the management to identify and rearrange their priorities hence ensure proper methods are effected to address them. The untimely stages of a good organization change establish effective strategic planning that entails review of organization’s mission and objectives. This concept provides significant basis for future analysis and planning. Eventually, it also spells out the organization responsibility and what ought to be done to fulfill them. Changes in business enable the organization management to carry out controlled modifications that brings out the current performance culture that is in line with global requirements. Changes also help the organization to produce products and services that are compatible with global markets, customer needs and requirements, and that meet global standards (Stokes, Wilson & Wilson, 2000, p, 45).

Concepts of change management

Consecutively, to encourage resourceful management of any given institution, the best advance will be in coming up with ways of managing organizational change and performance. The concept of Change generally entails innovation, which involves the basic idea of introducing something new into the organization. Organizational change concentrates on improving existing structures and entails activities that are focused on strengthening and developing the organization productivity and sustaining its subsistence (Porter, 1980, p 64).

Knowledge and Understanding of elements of change within an organization, is integral to administration of change initiative. For the success of any change implementation, the following critical success factors must be there, leadership commitment and team work; development of clear vision and strategy, effective communication between the management and the employees, employee involvement and recognition and employees’ development.

Managing change tends to get employees to merge personal objectives and aspirations with those of the organization. It also helps an organization to turn marginal business around and increases profitability and productivity of any organization. A concrete development of clear vision and strategy encourage successful implementation of change. Given that most organizations understand the definitive objective of business is to increase its value over time, it makes sense for them to establish a management system and strategy that embraces that key objective that is enshrined to build company value. Effective visions and strategies makes organization changes successful and build business value by increasing cash flows while reducing risks through teamwork and workers working together.

Another factor that promotes successful implementation of organizational change is the concrete aspect of awareness of norms (Ohmae, 1988, P 79).  The process of allowing employees to participate in the creation and development of new standards promote a sense of well being and respect in the part of the employee and this encourage positive development of organization change. The issues of Industrial and organizational Psychology in relation to organizational change improve Group cohesiveness and promote effective administration of duties and there is delegation of duties hence workers are not over burden to do a particular piece of work .Due to this concept, employees tend to concentrate on jobs in which they have technical skills or which they are experts.

The concept of involvement, recognition and respect for one another is also very important factor. No employee or employer would like to associate or want to work with an individual that is insensitive and rude towards everyone in the workplace. People being able to show professionalism and discipline in workplaces can provide essential considerations that can help the work environment run efficiently and promote effective implementation organizational change (Mahadevan, 2008, p 56).

Issues of change and possible solutions

Workplaces consist of employees from all walks of life and being of such diversities, problems are set to emerge especially during layoffs and transition to organizational changes.  Majority of these issues relate to interaction between the employees and management and others between employees themselves (Eisenhardt & Kathleen, 1997, p 34).

The concept of motivation is important in attaining effective organizational change, when this is lacking in an organization, the organization is unable to fulfill its functions. Other problems that prevent the organization from undertaking smooth organization changes include the issue of Unrealistic expectations where the management implement certain policies and fail to meet the organizational goals and objectives. Lack of clear direction and authority from the management makes it impossible to implement organizational changes. The discernment of change plan is crucial after the appliance of eminence concepts. In most situations, people do not like changes since; they always do not like to be changed (Eccles, Robert, & Nitin, 1996, p 56).

When the notions of change come into view, fear and resistance to change follow, often notwithstanding its obvious benefits. People fight against the impression of change because they: fear to lose something of great importance, or they don’t understand the concepts of change and their implications or they don’t find the concepts making sense to them or they find it difficult to cope with speed or level of change.

Resistance to change can be averted via: Commitment: From the CEO to the janitor, all workers should be committed to the change plan. Change should not be debatable. With tender esteem it must be made clear to every employee that that change is not an alternative, it is a requirement. Input: people affected by the changes should be given chances to air their opinions. Accountability: Every individual in the organization should be held responsible for applying his or her personal change activity. Not meeting the responsibility must carry or recognition. The organization should put mechanisms that honor the successful implementation of the change plan as well. Evaluation: the management should examine the success of implementation at designed intervals Denison, 1990, p 78).

Conclusion

In order to promote efficient management of any given institution, the best approach will be in coming up with ways of managing organizational change and performance through which all the individuals in the institution or organization will be mentored towards such a development. This will end up increasing performance and productivity thus being able to see majority of the employees getting the greatest benefits from the very efficient management in the organization. In conclusion, Jerry’s business is destined for success if he adopts the strategies mentioned above.

Bibliography

Denison, D., 1990. Corporate Culture and Organizational Effectiveness. New York: Wiley.

Eccles,D., Robert,U., and Nitin ,N.,1996. Beyond the Hype: Rediscovering the Essence of  Management. Harvard Business School Press.

Eisenhardt,W., and  Kathleen, M., 1997.”Strategic Decisions and All That Jazz.” Business   Strategy  Review. Autumn

Mahadevan,S.,2008. change  Management: Theory and Practice. New Delhi:Pearson Education India

Ohmae, K., 1988. The Mind of the Strategist: Business Planning for Competitive Advantage. Penguin.

Porter, M., .1980. Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and  competitors. Free Press.

Stokes, D., Wilson, N., and Wilson, L., 2000 .Finding Solutions to Workplace Problems.New  York:   Cengage press.

Schneider,B., Brief, A. P., and Guzzo, R. ,1996. Creating a climate and culture for  sustainable organizational change. Organizational Dynamics, 24.4, 7-19.

Sioukas.T, 2003. The solution path: a step-by-step guide to turning your workplace problems. San Francisco: John Wiley and sons ,inc.

1. The Economy in a Recession: answer the following questions assuming an economy similar to the U.S with real GDP falling 1% per year, unemployment as 12% and inflation at 1% per year.

a. Consider the 3 macroeconomic goals: full employment, low inflation, and economic growth. Why is full employment important for the U.S economy? Why is low inflation important? Why is economic growth important? Which is these goals are we failing to meet based on the information above for question 1?

- There are many ways that Full employment is important within the U.S.  The main reasons for full employment is that the economy will become stalled and unable to grow without having every person that is capable and willing to work working.  What full employment means is that the unemployment rate would run at 0%.  Low inflation is also very important to the economy.  Inflation being at a low means that the prices of good and services increase at a steady rate versus rapidly.  Though low inflation can be warning signs for deflation so economists keep an eye on inflation at all times no matter if its low or high.  Economic growth just like full employment and low inflation is very important to our economy.  This means that there is an increase in the per capita gross domestic product.  This is very important because it means that people are buying products and therefore the economy is in a stable place.

Based on the information above that states that GDP is falling at 1% per year, unemployment is at 12% and inflation is at 1% per year, the United States is not making the goals of economic growth and full employment.  However, with 1% inflation the United States is succeeding at the goal of low inflation.

b. During a recession, some economists recommend expansionary fiscal policy. To pursue expansionary fiscal policy, would the federal government increase or decrease government spending? To pursue expansionary fiscal policy, would the federal government increase or decrease taxes? What will this do to the federal budget deficit? What will this do the nation debt?

-There are many different things that can be done in order for the government to pursue expansionary fiscal policy.  However, the main thing that the government does in order to pursue this policy is to increase government spending.  When spending by the government is increased, it helps to stimulate the economy.  Stimulation of the economy helps the economy grow.  Also in order for the government to be able to pursue the policy of expansionary fiscal policy, they would need to decrease taxes. This decrease in taxes allows more money to be in the market for people to buy goods. The buying of goods stimulates the economy and therefore helps it grow.  Unfortunately expansionary fiscal policy has the problematic effect of causing the federal budget deficit to grow, and for the nation’s debt to increase as well.

c. During a recession, some economists recommend expansionary monetary policy. To pursue expansionary monetary, would the Federal Reserve increase or decrease the money supply? Would the Federal Reserve buy or sell U.S Treasury securities? Would the Federal Reserve raise or lower the discount rate? If annual inflation remained at 1% per year, would this expansionary monetary policy cause nominal interest rates to increase or decrease in the short-run? What do you think would happen to nominal interest rates over the next 5years if annual inflation increased to 15% during this time?

-There are many different things that the Federal Reserve can do when trying to follow economists recommendation of expansionary monetary policy.  One of the ways that the Federal reserve pursues this policy is by increasing the money supply.  When more money is printed then more money is available to be spent on items therefore stimulating the economy.  Another way that the Federal Reserve pursues the expansionary monetary policy is by buying U.S.Treasury Securities.  When the reserve buys these securities from the public they are giving money to the public and therefore once again allowing more purchases to happen based on more money in the economy.  A third way that the Federal Reserve would pursue this policy is by lowering the discount rate. The lower the discount rate the more willing people are to buy things such as cars and houses that rely on interest rates. At 1% inflation per year, the policy would cause nominal interest rates to decrease.  This is because the low inflation can at any point slide into a deflation and cause the economy to enter a recession versus the current economic status. At 15% annual inflation during the next 5 years then nominal interest rates would increase.  This increase would be to slow the increase of inflation and lower it to a more stable and economically favorable point.

d. During recession, some economists argue we should wait for the economy to correct itself. What must happen to resource prices for the economy to self-correct from a recession? What are some pros and cons of waiting for the economy to self-correct from recession? (list 2pros and 2cons)

-Self-correcting economies can happen according to some economist.  They wish to leave the economy alone and let the economy correct itself.  There are many different pros and cons to listening to the economists that believe in this theory.  The pros of waiting for the economy to self correct can be  that the national debt does not increase due to government spending, and the workforce will correct itself without government interjection and increase debt by the government.  The cons of waiting can include, the time it takes for the economy to self correct itself can seem devastating not only for the public but for the political party that is in place during this time, and prices of resources can fall too much and the opposite effect that is wanted may take place such as falling further into a recession versus out of it.

e. Some economists argue for improvement in education, infrastructure, health care, research and development of new technologies to increase economic growth. Some economists argue for lower taxes to increase incentives to work, save and invest. How would these supply enhancing policies help pull the economy out of recession? Which of these policies are you in favor of and why?

-Economist argue for many things when it comes to the increase in economic growth.  Some of these items are the improvement in education, infrastructure, health care, and research and development.  When these items are improved then the possibility of an improvement in the economy can occur according to the economists that argue for these items.  Other economists argue for lower taxes to increase incentives to work, save, and invest.  These supply enhancing policies can help pull the economy out of the recession because lower taxes help people spend more, save more, and invest in their future for hard times.  This stimulates the economy and therefore increases economic growth.  Improving education for example can not only help more people enter the workforce but can add income not only to the teachers of the schools but to the schools itself therefore allowing them to buy and pay more.  The policies that I am in favor of is the improvement in healthcare.  The reason that I favor this improvement is because when more people are healthy because of better healthcare and the possibility of curing more things then the workforce grows and therefore not as many people need to be on government subsidiaries and the government expenditures go down on things such as disability and can be spent on things that will grow the economy more.

2. The economy during an Inflationary Boom: Answer the following questions assuming an economy similar to the U.S with real GDP growing 5% per year over the last two year, unemployment at 3%, and inflation at 12%

a. Consider the 3 macroeconomic goals: full employment, low inflation, and economic growth. Why is full employment important for the U.S economy? Why is low inflation important? Why is economic growth important? Which is these goals are we failing to meet based on the information above for question 2?

-Macroecomic goals are set for the success of an economy.  These goals which include full employment, low inflation, and economic growth our very important in order for the economy to remain stable and successful.  Full employment is very important as part of an economic goal because when not enough people are working then there is a shortage of supplies that are needed and when there is more people needing work then work is available then government expenditures such as unemployment rises and therefore causes a shortage of funds on other projects that might be more important.  Low inflation is very important to the economy because when inflation is low then the dollar is worth more.  This is because when inflation is high then the dollar is worth more then a dollar therefore causing items to be less then their actual worth.  Finally economic growth is the most important when it comes to the economy.  With economic growth the economy remains stable because it shows that people are buying and selling at the right amounts.  When economic growth is low then it means not enough people are buying or selling and this stalls the economy.  Based on the information above for question two the goals that are failing in this example are full employment and low inflation.  Though unemployment in this example is lower then in the first there is still some unemployed people therefore we are not at full employment.  Also, the economy is failing at low inflation at 12% which means that the value of money is too high and therefore not worth as much as it could be.

b. During inflationary boom periods, some economists recommend using contractionary fiscal policy. would the federal government increase or decrease government spending if they wanted to reduce inflation? , would the federal government increase or decrease taxes if they wanted to reduce inflation? What will this do to the federal budget deficit? What will this do the nation debt?

-Economist have many theories when it comes to what to do during a inflationary boom period.  An inflationary boom period means that inflation is high due to too much money in the economy and therefore the value of that dollar is lower then it could be.  One of the ways that economist recommend for such periods of time is using contractionary fiscal policy. During this policy the government would decrease its spending.  The reason for this decrease is that the amount of money in the economy is lowered because of less spending.  Taxes during this time period would increase therefore pulling some of the money out of the consumers hand and back into the reserves.  Also, due to the lesser spending by the government and the increase in taxes both the federal budget deficit and the nations debt would decrease.

c. During inflationary boom periods, some economists recommend using contractionary monetary policy. To pursue contractionary monetary policy, would the Federal Reserve increase or decrease the money supply? Would the Federal Reserve buy or sell U.S Treasury securities? Would the Federal Reserve raise or lower the discount rate? Would the Federal Reserve raise or lower reserve requirements?

-The Federal Reserve has different ways to deal with the inflationary boom periods.  One of these ways is to follow economists recommendation of using contractionary monetary policy.  What this policy means when it comes to the Federal Reserve is that the money supply would be decreased.  This decrease would lessen the amount of money in the economy and therefore slow down the economy causing it to even out versus continuing to grow at higher inflation rates.  Also, the Federal Reserve in order to pull some of the money out of the economy would sell U.S. Treasury Securities.  These securities would be given to people in order for them to hold onto till a time where the securities are being bought again allowing for the consumers to save during this time but not with actual money.  Finally the Federal Reserve would raise reserve requirements for the banks.  This increase would cause the banks to have to have more in their reserves therefore less loans would be accepted and processed.

d. During inflationary boom periods, some economists believe we should wait for the economy to correct itself. What must happen to resource prices for the economy to self-correct from overheated boom phase in the business cycle? What are some pros and cons of waiting for the economy to self-correct when the economy is overheated and inflationary? (list 2pros and 2cons)

-Even during inflationary boom periods some economist believe that the economy should be allowed to self-correct itself versus the government getting involved.  Based on this in order for the economy to self-correct from overheated boom phase in the business cycle resource prices must rise.  The reason for this rise is so that less companies would buy products and therefore supply and demand will even itself out.  There are many pros and cons that have to do with waiting for the economy to self correct. The pros for this can include the economy will more naturally correct itself versus the possibility of over slowing the economy and falling into a recession, and layoffs of employees happen at a slower rate therefore allowing families to prepare for the loss of jobs.  The cons for this theory can include the speed of which the economy corrects itself can be much slower, and not enough people at government facilities to cover the increase in unemployed workers.
e. Some economists argue for improvement in education, infrastructure, health care, research and development of new technologies to increase economic growth. Some economists argue for lower taxes to increase incentives to work, save and invest. How would these supply enhancing policies help reduce inflation? Which of these policies are you in favor of and why?

- Many economists argue for many things during hard times.  Some economists argue for improvement in education, infrastructure, health care, and research and development of new technologies in order to increase economic growth.  Other economists argue for lower taxes to increase incentives to work, save, and invest.  These supply enhancing policies would help reduce inflation because more people would be educated on what an inflationary boom is and they would save money in order to help slow the economy down.  Also saving during a time of economic growth will allow these families that do loss their jobs during times of high inflation a fall back in order to not lose their lifestyle.  The policy that I favor is the increase in investment and savings.  The reason that I favor this policy is because not only will help the families in the long run but investing and saving during inflationary periods gets the money out of the hands of the consumers and into banks allowing the banks to have their higher reserve requirements and the economy to slow down at the correct rate.

Introduction

A nurse’s career is not only professionally challenging but also puts great demand on physical and mental resources to cope up with the continuously changing environment within a healthcare setting. A nurse practitioner is expected to comply with the orders of the physician meticulously and flawlessly as well as take appropriate decisions on her own according to the ever changing situation in a patient care setting. Expectations from a nurse are enormous, especially from the patient’s perspective. This requires discipline, punctuality; evidence based and informed decision making capability, as well as thorough professional competence in terms of theoretical and practical skills. In fact a nurse has to play the role of a physician, counselor, pharmacist, family member and psychologist all rolled into one at the same time while dealing with her patients. No doubt, this requires a high level of competence which can easily break a normal person. Issues such as satisfaction with one’s career, ability to cope up with personal and professional challenges and the question whether the nursing profession allows one to lead a happy, fulfilling life, which is the ultimate human goal, therefore need to be addressed. Nemcek (2007) and Brown (2009) have attempted to address these particular issues precisely in their quantitative and qualitative studies respectively. The former has followed a thorough and well designed approach to evaluate the three facets of life of a nursing practitioner identified by her, which she labels as the ‘ability to promote self nurturance’, ‘satisfaction with life in general’ and ‘career’ in particular. She has conducted a quantitative study to arrive at a statistically significant inference, which might serve to indicate the relationship between the three aspects she has identified as vital in nursing practice. Brown, on the other hand has attempted to conduct an incisive and precise qualitative analysis of the capabilities of established nurse leaders in comprehending the essence of self care and its vital role in allowing them to function effectively in a challenging work environment by obtaining their personal views.

The framework for analysis of a research article must identify what problem is being addressed, the purpose for research in the problem area, and a gist of previous and current research on an aspect in order to arrive at a sensible and statistically valid conclusion. The theoretical framework and hypothesis should be clearly stated and the sample size selected for the study should be adequate to provide a valid result. Both studies have satisfied these criteria within the limits imposed by the apparently small sample sizes.

Critical Appraisal, Paper 1

Nemcek, 2007 who is an Assistant Professor at the Decker School of Nursing at Binghamton, NY and an experienced registered nurse herself, has conducted a descriptive correlational study by designing questionnaire based measures of ‘self nurturance’ and ‘life’ and ‘career’ satisfaction, which were administered to 136 shortlisted registered nurses, believing that if these measures related in any way to each other, could contribute towards improving the mental health and safety among nurses. The title of the paper is succinct and self explanatory though it does not portray that the relationship between the three aspects enumerated is the focus of the study. The abstract is a succinct summarization of the intention behind the research and explains the salient points of the inference obtained as a result. Building upon the current necessity for promotion of a healthy, safe and satisfied workforce in the nursing profession due to paucity of professionals, the author has cited previous work on such aspects which have identified ‘self-nurturance’ which she explains to be a holistic nourishment of body, mind and spirit in an endeavor to promote personal growth as one of the primary factors contributing to satisfaction. In her introductory paragraph, she has stressed upon the necessity of an occupational health nurse to employ ‘self nurturance’ strategies to inculcate a feeling of satisfaction among her employees. She feels that such strategies should involve regular programs aimed at teaching and assisting nurses to modify personal lifestyle behaviors and their work environment in order to lead more fulfilling lives. She has opined that thoroughly satisfied nursing professionals can deliver better healthcare services to the public which can serve to relieve them of undue stress and ultimate burnout, which are forcing younger nurses in particular to opt out from the profession altogether in the current era, resulting in serious shortages.

The author has thoroughly researched what ‘self nurturance’ actually means and its implications on normal human being as well as nursing professionals in an effort to lay down the background for her proposed study. Building upon her own definition of the term published in an earlier paper, she has eulogized the benefits of happiness and satisfaction in general life for success in any professional pursuit. She has cited numerous studies done on people from diverse backgrounds such as students, single parents and old women which prove that satisfaction with one’s working environment and the ability to exert professional control translates into more meaningful work performance. In fact, the author insists that ‘self nurturance’ is an entity in itself whose regular practice enables one to achieve better work outcomes. She has pointedly referred to just one study about the effects of ‘self nurturance’ in nurses which she felt was reason enough for exploration into this area. Past quantitative studies on this aspect had mainly concentrated on finding the differences self nurturance exerts between normal and psychologically perturbed subjects. The author believes that a positive correlation between ‘self nurturance’ with help and well being has firmly been established and this needs to be probed in those involved in the nursing profession as well.

The author has approached the subject of her inquiry with a thoroughly researched methodological design in which she conducted a pilot study initially to ascertain the appropriateness of her design on 6 volunteer nurses’ selected from a private university. This was followed by the actual study conducted on 136 volunteer nurses who were recruited through an online advertisement. Adequate provisions were made by the author to obtain institutional approval and informed consent in both pilot and the actual study. This seems to be an appropriate sample size at this stage as it eliminates variation due to institutional differences and also makes the volunteers to be adequately prepared for the type of questionnaires they are going to be subjected to. Although a larger sample size could have been more indicative of the results but as this study was the first effort of its kind, the novelty of the idea compensates for the small sample size. Moreover, an already accepted descriptive, correlational statistical design was chosen by the author, which is appropriate for this kind of study. The questionnaires were carefully planned to yield pertinent data as far as the motives for the desired ends are concerned. SPSS is the most common statistical software employed these days for analysis of various kinds of data with assured accuracy due to dependence on computers rather than manual calculations. The statistical instruments included MSNS (Modified Self Nurturance Scale; 53 items) from a pre-established design, SWLS (Satisfaction With Life Scale; 5 items) and NCSS (Nursing Career Satisfaction Scale; 3 items) with response scales of 1-7 ranging from ‘Strongly Agree’ to ‘Strongly Disagree’, which suggests that, a lot of data must have been generated for the statistical analysis. The author has described all instruments in detail as far as their historical origin and validity for this particular study are concerned.  In identical studies done in the past, correlations were found to be within permissible limits of consistency as well as accuracy required to form valid inferences.

The results have been depicted in easily comprehensible tabulated forms which describe the demographic details of the participants, mean values obtained for the three instruments under study and the correlational attributes within the three. The age range of the participants in the study is fairly wide and represents inexperienced as well as experienced nurses. Errors due to sex or demographic variations seem to be minimal as most respondents were female and White. Expectedly the statistical analysis revealed no significant variation between demographics and self nurturance or life and career satisfaction scales. Mean scores of all parameters under study revealed scores of 3.5, 4.9 and 4.7 for MSNS, SWLS and NCSS respectively with permissible levels of standard deviation. Extremely significant correlation was established between MSNS and SWLS, MSNS and NCSS, and SWLS and NCSS. The results are more representative of the younger lot of the white, female participants as majority of them (42%) belonged to the category which had a work experience ranging from 1-10 years. The MSNS score of 3.5 obtained in this study has been claimed by the author to consistent with data obtained from normal or ‘well’ individuals in past studies. The SWLS score also compared well with that from ‘well’ persons at 4.87. In short, all instruments studied by the author showed a statistically significant positive relationship with each other leading the author to conclude that ‘self-nurturance, career satisfaction, and life satisfaction were positively correlated with each other’ (Nemcek, 2007).

The variables which could have affected the results of this study and can be considered dependant include age variations, differences values of life due to individual perception, ethnic and cultural backgrounds, educational level, job setting, home environment and personal circumstances. The independent variable was the same profession of the participants.

The author has later described how a highly structured and organized environment as in Magnet Hospitals can impact overall satisfaction in a nursing practitioner in a positive manner. Greater autonomy and participation in administrative decisions in such locations facilitates career satisfaction which has a direct impact on satisfaction in life in general and promotes self nurturance. Implications for occupational nurses in particular have been discussed as the author believes that they are the pertinent link in inculcating self nurturance tendencies affecting career and life satisfaction of the employees working under their guidance.

The limitations of this study, as admitted by the author herself are the inability of correlation based studies to provide evidence for causality, and the sample being a ‘convenience sample’ as participants were aware of the motives of the study.  This suggests that the study should involve a predictive design i.e. measures of the same construct should be measured sometimes in the future and the similar sets of data are compared for ascertaining validity.

Critical Appraisal, Paper 2

The second paper by Brown, 2009 addresses the same issue as the above quantitative study by Nemcek but through a qualitative lens, by assessing the way registered nurse leaders felt about the need for self care after being exposed to a project which introduced and inculcated the importance of the sense of ‘caring-for-self’ in them. The title of the study is self explanatory as it suggests that self renewal can only be established through self care and the author’s attempt at gaining insights from the lived experience of carefully selected nursing practitioners who are themselves leaders in their specific capacities. The abstract briefly introduces the necessity for eliminating stress among nurses due to their overt vulnerability due to the high demands the profession places upon them. The research methodology has been clearly defined as a hermeneutic phenomenology which evaluated the lived experience of 10 carefully selected nurse leaders by intimate interaction with them. The abstract enumerates the findings in the form of four common themes, based on which the author has recommended the use of holistic and creative methods to reinforce self renewal among nurse leaders.

The introductory section begins with a quotation highlighting the emphasis on ‘self’ and how everything emanates from it. The author has pointedly explained that though nurses are accustomed to caring for others, they are themselves subject to neglect due to the high demands of the profession. She cites a number of previous studies which have substantially proved the importance of holistic self care practices among nurses and its contribution to their positive image among the patients. Her primary aim in this study was to reinforce the concept of self care in nurse leaders who had been exposed to a caring-for self program in a community hospital setting.

A research project lasting ten weeks was initiated at the behest of the chief nursing officer of a private 185 bedded hospital in South Florida within a community setting after the delivery of a seminar on caring for self by the author. During the subsequent sequence of events, the author decided to conduct a personal interview based study on the lived experience of shortlisted participants on an individual basis. This approach seems to be ideal, as getting information directly from the proverbial horse’s mouth is most likely to yield appropriate end points. The author has cited profusely from pertinent literature to highlight the challenges which necessitate the need of caring for self among nurses who might be exposed to the precipitation of physical, emotional and behavioral disorders due to stress factors at work. She has enumerated the various standards accepted and being practiced by appropriate organizations like the American Holistic Nursing Association (AHNA) for holistic nurse self care and its pertinence in actual practice. The author has justified the use of Hermeneutic Phenomenology as the right approach for her study which she has explained to be an ‘interpretive study of being in the world’ (Brown, 2009). She has quoted substantially to explain the nuances related to this phenomenological approach. The author’s experience and qualification are most appropriate for this kind of study as she is an expert in the field and most likely to extract the most appropriate information commensurate with the research methodology employed, in a person to person interaction.

The ten nursing leaders chosen as participants were carefully selected based on the vital positions they occupied in the community hospital setting and appropriate environment for the interactions was created after obtaining due approval and sanction of pertinent authority. Care was taken that the interviews and the post interview interactions took place in a quiet, stress free environment with no disturbance. The number of years in nursing which ranged from 18-32 years as well as the number of years in leadership roles which ranged between 8 months to 24 years suggest that the participant selection was most appropriate, as it is likely to yield common viewpoints as well as differences of opinion, if any due to age and experience variations. Moreover the participants were for a wide variety of sub specialties which could allow one to understand whether any variations could occur due to the area of one’s practice. Other variables were educational background and family affiliations such as responsibility towards children or aged parents. All participants were pre-exposed to a 10-week caring-for-self project at the hospital itself and had adequate time to interact with each other and participate in activities designed to enhance self growth and creativity. Although the ten participants were reluctant to being interviewed after the 10 week period in a taped conversation, they continued to meet monthly and agreed for the same after an elapse of one year.

The data collection and analysis was in the form of carefully prepared and reviewed transcripts of the one-to-one taped interviews between the researcher and individual participants with due respect to privacy by omitting details of the participants which were mutually decided upon as being too personal. Interviews lasted 45-60 minutes each and began with general questions about self care after which the verbal cues were built upon to pose specific queries about self care. The participants were free to express themselves in the form of anecdotes and stories which explained their personal values and viewpoints. Line by line analysis of the transcripts was carried out by employing special software called ATLAS.ti which has been claimed by the author to provide a consistent decision trail as far as theme analysis was concerned.

The primary themes that emerged through analysis of the data were ‘Reflection on the Journey’, ‘Why to Care for Self on the Journey’, ‘How to Care for self on the journey’ and ‘Wisdom Learned along the Path’. These themes have been elaborated by the author one by one with generous excerpts of the interviews which she considered as pertinent for arriving at the inferences which aided her in building the theme categories. Climbing atop to a mountain peak emerged as the primary metaphor for depicting the overall experience of self care along life’s journey. Caring for self increased the ascent atop the mountain as it increased the level of what the nursing practitioners could give to their patients in terms of positivity. Setbacks along the way on this upward journey were referred to as ‘getting caught in a whirlwind’, ‘being pulled away in multiple directions’, ‘a constant hammering’ and ‘being at the bottom of the ladder’ which made the participants realize the gravity of such situations and spurred them on to making efforts to overcome the barriers through self care. All participants had their moments of realization when they felt the need for self care in adverse circumstances as they found that the work pressures had gotten too much or their involvement had been so intense that they failed to recognize that they were not taking care of themselves. Their healing efforts for self included indulging in personal hobbies such as driving or reading books, which gave them adequate diversion from their respective routines, to reestablish their self identities.

The discussion in the study focuses on the comprehension of self care by the participants and the ways and means they adopt to overcome the obstacles encountered in their life’s journey which make them wiser along the years. Sharing and assisting other in the profession were considered as vital in promoting the awareness about self care and attain a balance between work and life in general. Holistic self care practices on a shared platform have been recommended by the author in her conclusion which she believes will enable registered nursing leaders to encourage their employees and prevent burnouts as well as promote professional achievement and growth. The limitations in this study include the small number of participants as well as an environment and methodology which might have elicited subdued responses due to privacy concerns.

Conclusion

The articles analyzed above stress upon the importance of self care in nursing practitioners which has assumed greater significance in recent years due to reduced workforce and the high attention span required in the workplace. Excess work does not allow a nurse to stop and think about caring for self though she is expected to care for others. This has resulted in situations where some practitioners contemplate withdrawing from the profession altogether or suffer burnouts which are extremely damaging physically as well as emotionally. The first article is a quantitative analysis of the relationship between self nurturance, life and career satisfaction which have been found to be positively correlated with each other (Nemcek, 2007). The second article though philosophical in content, uses an appropriate phenomenological approach to probe the values attributed to self care by established nursing practitioner leaders from various fields through personal interviews (Brown, 2009). Both articles not only suggest further research in this aspect but also offer suggestions to future nursing leaders to incorporate self care and self nurturance into their professional sphere for optimum growth and satisfaction with nursing as a career.

References

Brown, C. J. (2009). Self-renewal in nursing leadership: The lived experience of caring for self, Journal of

Holistic Nursing, 27(2), 75-84.

Nemcek, M. A. (2007). Registered Nurses’ Self-Nurturance and Life and Career Satisfaction, American

Association of Occupational Health Nurses Journal, 55(8), 305-310.

Caroline Bird in her essay titled “College is a Waste of Time and Money” argues that college education is a useless endeavor that is often forced on students.  According to Caroline Bird, students lack motivation and enthusiasm for college education. If money is the goal of education, she opines that there are better ways of investment. She also claims that college education does not make a student more ready for jobs and neither are there jobs that are relevant to the field of study. When there are some students who become very successful she says that the contributing factors are mainly intelligence and family background rather than their college education. Thesis: While there is some truth in her arguments, it is exaggeration to assume that college education is a total waste of time and money as there is no denying the fact that formal college education allows students to acquire many non-monetary benefits, increases their chances of having a good career and allows them to acquire lifelong learning skills.

Bird says that the significance of college education is rooted in the American focus on higher education during the 1950s. Today, this has ballooned into a huge industry with billions of dollars involved. After the post war generation there has been a decline in enrolment in colleges and demand has subsided, resulting in commercialization and hard selling of programs. “They sell college like soap, promoting features they think students want: innovative programs, an environment conducive to meaningful personal relationships, and a curriculum so free that it doesn’t sound like college at all” (p. 1). The commercialization of educational institutions is a reality that one has to accept. James J.F. Forest points out that the student population has become very diverse in recent times and hence admissions offices are forced to find new ways to reach out to various minorities and older students returning to education. Hence commercialization is becoming inevitable. Moreover, consumer publications are ranking colleges resulting in more and more commercialization. Forest says that students are viewing colleges as a consumer purchase and think about which college will give them a good deal and whether it has a brand name (Forest 38).

Caroline Bird says that the students do not come to college out of interest in studies but because it has become “the thing to do” and college education is perceived as a way of escaping from accepting job responsibilities and as an obligatory function due to parental pressures.  According to Bird’s findings, only 25% of students enter college to further their knowledge and for the remaining 75% it’s a social center or aging vat, a young folks’s home or a prison (Bird 2). Caroline Bird says that the students express their protests against the system in an individualistic manner through withdrawal and isolation. They drop out for various reasons without really having the confidence to express their discontent. Bird compares the silent sadness of students to that created in women when they were forced to assume roles within the four walls of their homes (Bird 2). Bird has studied the sadness of students in a scientific way and found that they are sad “because they are not needed” (Bird 2). Students are basically sent to college because youngsters serve no other purpose in society. Some of the students view their time in college as a sentence to be served. Some students see college life as better than doing nothing as jobs are not that readily available and also a good way of living away from home along with financial support of their parents. Bird validates her argument with the Carnegie Commission estimates that 5-30% of students are in college reluctantly. According to a study by Leon Lefkowitz, 200 of 300 students felt that college education was a waste of money (Bird 2). Bird says that it is not fair to force youngsters into colleges.

It does not seem plausible to accept Bird’s argument that most of the college students are not interested in their studies. Generation of interest among students depends on a number of factors. “There is a body of literature that cites “best practices” in college education” (Forest 339). It emphasizes that colleges can generate interest in its student population by enhancing teaching quality, ensuring good interaction between the students, peers and faculty, maintaining the intensity of the academic program and getting the students involved in the college experience (Forest 339). Studies by several scholars show that students may be made more motivated in their college life ensuring that the campus climate is favorable to the needs of students, is safe and hospitable. Moreover, courses that incorporate active learning, field experiences and hands on applications are found to be more conducive to learning (Forest 339). Another viewpoint is that interest in college education is not necessarily based on the external environment. Students also with their own behaviors, goals and attitudes can make the experience positive or negative. They should approach college life with a positive approach, get involved in suitable activities and enhance their leadership and social skills (Forest 342).   Studies show that in general participation in college has a positive effect on students. Compared to freshmen, college seniors are more intelligent, knowledgeable have greater problem solving capabilities, and can deal with conceptual complexity, critical thinking and abstract reasoning. Students develop their personal identity, moral identity and positive self concept during their college days (Forest 337). Studies show that college graduates are more independent, self reliant and have an internal locus of control.  Students who are in hostels are found to have more positive outcomes on the social and personal levels (Forest 337). Doyle and Tagg suggest that students must be made to realize that college is not a terminal educational experience and that their college education is aimed at preparing them to be lifelong learners who can independently engage in self-learning. They advocate a learner centered environment in the colleges which incorporates the new findings of how the human brain learns. Students must be made aware that they are having the best possible learning environment where they are taught lifelong learning skills such as writing reading, working together as a team, accepting and giving feedback and criticism, expressing ideas clearly and concisely, being punctual, listening attentively, defending a premise, locating reliable information, etc. The students must also be convinced that their courses are well integrated and are aimed at achieving certain objectives.

Bird does not agree that college education will help the students to make money in the future: “if making money is the only goal, college is the dumbest investment you can make” (p. 3). Bird explains this statement elaborately by comparing the money that would be spent on education versus money that is put in a bank for interest. Even when the graduates do succeed in having good jobs, Bird says there is no evidence that the higher income is due to their college education as college attract people who are intelligent with good family backgrounds and an enterprising temperament. She is also of the opinion that in the United States financial success is mostly dependent on luck (Bird 3). But Bird admits that college opens doors to satisfying jobs in the field of teaching, medicine and research though such opportunities are scarce. She accepts the fact that that though the opportunities for doctors may be getting saturated; there is a demand for lawyers. However, Bird says that studies show that very often, the work attached to the jobs is totally unrelated to their college education and this is true for architects, nurses, teachers and other professionals (Bird 6). This means that college education does not prepare the student for the job market. And education in liberal arts has become meaningless and expensive as there are many ways to acquire liberal arts education – libraries and television and internet. Bird is convinced that college does not make people intelligent, ambitious, happy or liberal but it’s just that these kinds of people are attracted to colleges in the first place (Bird 6). Colleges do not contribute any transforming learning experiences compared to jobs, friends, history and time. The large sizes of the colleges have dented the quality of college programs and teaching. Ultimately, college education does not guarantee a good job. Bird concludes that college education is for students who can afford money and time to read and learn and there must be alternatives provided for youngsters to have a good future.

Contrary to the findings of Bird, the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education has found that college graduates have less erratic job history, will earn more promotions and are likely to be happier with work (Gardner et al 11). Gardner et al point to the fact that in a healthy economy, unemployment rate is highest among those who have less than a high school diploma while it is lowest among those with professional degrees or doctorates (Gardner et al 11). Over a person’s lifetime, a college education can increase the earning potential of a person by $1 -$2 million. Though this may not seem to be a very significant amount, there are many non-monetary benefits of college life. College education allows students to explore their internal selves and building valuable learning skills. Porter (2002) in “The Value of a College Degree” says that college education increase personal/professional mobility, provides improved quality of life for their children, better consumer decision making and leads to more hobbies and leisure activities. Porter also cites the fact that college makes students more open minded, cultured, more rational, less prejudiced, and less authoritarian and these good qualities are passed on to their children (Rowley and Hurtado, 2002). Above all Porter (2002) has reported that completion of college is associated with good health – both for the individual as well as his children. Moreover, many studies show that higher education is correlated with cultural and family values and economic growth.

Caroline Bird is right in some of her arguments. It is true that colleges have become highly commercialized and fees are becoming more and more exorbitant. And she is also right that some of the students are very disillusioned about college education because of the commercialization. According to Bird, investment in college life is not a wise one. But college education has its own benefits. Apart from opening doors to career enrichment, college life also moulds the values, character and attitude of a person by giving him opportunities to enhance his leadership and social skills. College also prepares an individual for being a self directed learner by giving him lifelong learning skills. Thus, despite the fact that colleges are becoming more and more commercialized, college education can be a highly transformative experience when the learning environment is right and the attitude of the students is positive.

Works Cited

Bird, Caroline (2010). College is a Waste of Time and Money. Accessed online on 14 November 2010 at http://www.grossmont.edu/bertdill/docs/CollegeWaste.pdf

Doyle, Terry and Tagg, John (2008). Helping students learn in a learner-centered environment: a guide to facilitating learning in higher education. Stylus Publishing, LLC.

Forest, J. F. James (2002). Higher education in the United States: an encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO Publishers.

Gardner, N. John; Jewler, A. Jerome and Barefoot, O. Betsy (2007). Your College Experience: Strategies for Success. Cengage Learning Publishers.

Porter, Kathleen (2002). “The Value of a College Degree”. Eric Digest, 2002. Accessed online on 15 November 2010 at http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-3/value.htm

Rowley, L.L., & Hurtado, S. (2002). The Non-Monetary Benefits of an Undergraduate Education. Center for the Study of Higher and Postsecondary Education, University of Michigan.

Arthur Miller was born in Harlem, New York in 1915 to an illiterate Jewish father, Isidore Miller, and Augusta Barnett.  Despite being illiterate, his father’s business of manufacturing ladies wear and shoes was successful, giving the Millers a comfortable lifestyle.  However, the Depression had hit the business hard and forced the Millers to change their lifestyle.  They moved into a smaller house while Arthur had to work after high school in order to study in college.  His family’s circumstances propelled Miller into becoming a playwright.  He studied at the University of Michigan and won playwright of the year[1].

Miller was already an acclaimed playwright, having written Death of a Salesman, when he wrote The Crucible in 1953.  The Crucible was loosely based on the events that took place in Salem, Massachusetts in 1692 when people accused of witchcraft were brought to trial and those who did not confess to practising occult were hanged.  It did not matter if they were innocent or not.  Miller, however, wrote The Crucible not as a direct remembrance of man’s folly during that time but as allegory to the 1950s hysteria over communism[2]. During the 1950s, there was a general paranoia that communists were trying to dominate the country, the direct result of the Cold War era.  Even Miller was invited for questioning, which he refused to attend.  Senator Joseph McCarthy led the fervor and dramatic hunting of communists and their sympathizers in the U.S.  Miller was reminded of the Salem witch hunt that happened during the 17th century and wrote The Crucible to remind people that what was happening during their time was reminiscent of a period when suspicions and jealousy had wreaked the lives of many people[3].

Review

The Crucible was set in Salem, Massachusetts and the time was between 1692 and 1693.  Miller loosely based the story on the characters and event that became popularly known as the witch hunt that occurred in Salem during that period[4].  The characters and what happened to them were followed but Miller made his own interpretations and laced the story with his own twists in order to make it more dramatic to the audience.  It revolved around John Proctor and Abigail Williams, a scorned woman.  Events became easier to understand if someone was forced to do evil because her or his heart’s desire has been thwarted – such is the case of Abigail.  She lied because her ultimate goal was to get rid of Proctor’s wife.

The chaos all started when one of the girls who went to the forest to do some dancing collapsed due to fright after being surprised in the clearing by a reverend – only to wake up hysterical.  The hysteria could have been the result of fright or exhaustion but the people chose to interpret it differently.  This was unsurprising given the religious fervor of the Puritan era.  Proctor went to see the woman who collapsed but found himself confronted by Abigail.  Proctor refused her advances, which precipitated the entire witch hunt.  The whole thing would have been prevented if Proctor responded to Abigail’s schemes[5].

Abigail saw her opportunity to get back at Proctor for refusing her advances and to get rid of his wife, Elizabeth, in the process.  What her selfishness and pride accomplished was to put Proctor on the gallows rather than his wife.  On the surface, the chaos and the fateful events that followed merely resulted from the malice of the woman who had been rejected by her former lover.  It was revenge of a scorned woman.  The story, however, was not just about suspicions and jealousy but also about how fragile were the threads holding society intact.  Given the opportunity to take advantage of others, people in Salem were ready to point accusing fingers.  Thomas Putnam, for instance, wanted Giles Corey’s land, and used the witchcraft hunt as an opportunity to make Giles miserable by accusing his wife as a practitioner.  More, Giles did not just end losing his wife but he suffered the worst among those who were accused of witchcraft.  For trying to save his wife and to explain the motive of the accuser, Giles ended up being pressed by stone[6].  Despite the absence of any solid evidence, the judges were willing to hang people just because somebody has claimed them to be practitioners of witchcraft.  There were no questions asked about the likely motives of the accusers.  It was enough that they were accused to be communing with evil forces or dabbling with the occult.

The judges were an important part of the story because they held the fate of the accused in their hands.  In essence, the judges in the trial were not judges in how the term has come to be known in modern society.  They seemed not to have minds of their own; they seemed to have not known what critical thinking was all about[7].  Considering their choices of people to become judges, this was expected.  One of the judges was a maidservant, probably a woman who was highly superstitious.  Another judge was as ignorant and superstitious.  Worse, Judge Hathorne was sadistic.  It was ironic that to be saved from hanging, an accused should just accept to being one, like in the case of the slave Tituba[8].  The depiction of the judges – their ignorance, cruelty, superstition – was not something that Miller just made up.  He did not make them appear evil.  He simply gave them these traits because more reasonable and intelligent individuals would not have acted as naively or as unreasonably as they did[9].

Given the portrayal of the judges in this story, society was frightening as the voice of reason has been shelved.  Justice was a farce during this time.  The depiction of the character’s hopelessness was very evident, making the reader hope that some form of miracle would happen so that the nightmare that was happening to those people would somehow stop.  It was clear to the reader where the root of the problem started, yet, it was not resolved.  Abigail could have been exposed for the fraud that she was.  However, resolution of the problem was not possible because that would mean clearing the misunderstanding and exposing Abigail for what she has done and intended to do.  That would give the story a happier ending with no innocent people going to the gallows.  But Abigail and her friends had to escape and Proctor had to be hanged, otherwise, the story would not reflect the horror of the time and what actually happened in Salem in the 17th century.

Miller’s writing and portrayal of the evil nature of man was compelling and realistic.  He has an understanding of what truly drives people to do the things that would harm others. The author was known for his ability to portray the everyday reality of the American society in an unidealized manner.  He presented truth starkly without trying to dull its impact.  If society was foolish, he was able to present it without fear of hurting sensibilities.  If a man died a horrible death, he had no qualms writing about it.  If a man would die because justice was very much flawed, he would not hesitate to expose it.   Miller wanted people to understand and acknowledge that life was cruel and that society was deeply flawed; however, people can make it better by acting more sensibly and using more of his intellect rather than believe on superstitions.

In the case of the people who died during the witch hunt in Salem, Miller was able to make the emotional pain surface on the words of Proctor, as well as, the overwhelming anger of the men and women who were forced to confess to something they were not just to save themselves from being hanged.  Proctor’s wrath over the helplessness of his situation and of others was easy to guess from how the characters have spoken.  Proctor’s declaration of “it is enough!” showed in a few words the different emotions consuming him at the moment when he was supposed to be delivered from his sins[10].  The reader will easily imagine himself being on the shoes of the accused and feel the same emotions at the wrong and ridiculous allegations.  Danforth’s reaction to Proctor’s outburst was also reflective of how naïve society was in handling the situation.  Danforth and many other Puritans like him seriously believed that someone who dabbled in witchcraft would be saved if they confessed to the sin.  A modern person would be aghast at the naivety of Salem’s population and the prevalence of superstitions.  Yet, it is important to remember that America was young then.  The country was still trying to establish itself.

The Crucible, as a whole, is another representation of how Miller used his writing to raise social awareness.  He was an advocate of change and making people realize the folly of their ways.  For someone living in the modern times, the events in Salem were unbelievable but they happened.  It made people realize that society was very much capable of acting stupidly on its whims despite the fact their actions and beliefs ran contrary to what is reasonable, sensible, and intelligent.  The story was about an event that took place more than 200 years ago but its lessons and applications remained true at present.  The book should be read by the coming generations in order to keep its lessons fresh.

Description of History in the Book

The Crucible should not be read as a faithful recounting of the Salem witch hunt or a perfect allegory of the 1950s frenzy over communism.  Miller took liberties with the story and embellished it with his own ideas of what could have prompted men and women to point accusing fingers at others[11].  He delved into the motives of people and created heroes and villains to make the story more appealing to an audience.  Miller used real names of those who were involved in the trial and included real events but the facts were changed in many respects so that it becomes a work of fiction rather than of fact.

Personal Opinion

The Crucible, as a work of literature, is highly admirable.  It can make the reader want to put sense into the people who have been called upon to stand as judges to the accused individuals.  The story can make readers want to cry and beg people to be reasonable.  It was painful to think of Giles Corey being pressed to death even if it was only mentioned in passing; hanging was better than being pressed to death.  The people of Salem were brutal and cruel, all in the name of a twisted belief in a practice that was not even proven to have existed.  Ignorance and over zealotry are very dangerous when combined.  The Crucible is a good reminder to people to demand facts and evidence when being asked to make a judgment on anything.  It is folly to just take people’s words at face value.  Hopefully, society has gone a long way in treating the deviants of society.  Overall, I like the book for its literary value although I wanted a happier ending – one where the villainess will be served her just punishment.  However, this cannot be the case considering that it would change history and lessen the book’s impact.

Bibliography

Abbotson, Susan C.W.  Student Companion to Arthur Miller.  Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000.

Budick, E. Miller.  “History and Other Spectres in The Crucible,” in Arthur Miller by Harold Bloom (ed.).  New York: Chelsea House, 1987.

Martin, Robert A. and Bloom, Harold (ed.).  Arthur Miller’s The Crucible: Background and Source.  Philadelphia, PA: Chelsea House, 1999.

Miller, Arthur.  The Crucible.  United States of America: Penguin Group, 1982.

Otten, Terry.  “The Crucible to a Memory of Two Mondays,” in The Temptation of Innocence in the Dramas of Arthur Miller. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri, 2002.

[2] Abbotson, 1.

[3] Abbotson, 10.

[4] Robert A. Martin and Harold Bloom (ed.), Arthur Miller’s The Crucible: Background and Source (Philadelphia, PA: Chelsea House, 1999), 55.

[5] Arthur Miller, The Crucible (United States of America: Penguin Group, 1982), 3.

[6] Miller, 49.

[7] Terry Otten, “The Crucible to a Memory of Two Mondays,” in The Temptation of Innocence in the Dramas of Arthur Miller (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri, 2002), 60.

[8] Miller, 122.

[9] Martin and Bloom, 63

[10] Miller, 142.

[11] E. Miller Budick, “History and Other Spectres in The Crucible,” in Arthur Miller by Harold Bloom (ed.) (New York: Chealsea House, 1987), 127

Introduction

Gadget First, a retail store for electronic products based in Manchester, sells different categories of electronic products like DVDs, Laptops, Mobile phones, Hi-fi cameras etc. Gadget First has many suppliers who supply different kinds of electronic products under various categories of electronic goods. Since there are too many suppliers to supply the various products, Gadget First wants to automate its process of inventory control like checking the availability of stocks, maintaining re-order levels, keeping a record of suppliers for each items, maintaining a record of all transactions between the store and the supplier and the issue of order forms for each order placed with suppliers.

Problem Analysis

Gadget First’s staff seems to be having a problem with keeping track of the available stock and maintaining the re-order levels. Also, since there are too many suppliers with any one supplier being able to supply many items, Gadget First may need a separate supplier database to resolve this issue. Another problem that Gadget First faces is – keeping track of all the orders made – like for example, the date on which the order was made, the quantity ordered and the supplier to whom that order was placed. The proposed database design should address all these issues for successful implementation of the database system.

Assumptions made

It is assumed that Gadget First has the following system requirements at its disposal for successful implementation of the database system:

A server that runs the MYSQL RDBMS server application.

Client systems with MYSQL client query tool to log on to the database and initiate queries and generate reports.

Constraints

Possible constraints for this project are:

The resources to implement the database system with the requirements described under “Assumptions”.

As a result of implementation of this system some of the record keeping staff in Gadget First may be laid off or trained to handle the new system and this may lead to resistance from the staff who are resistant to change.

Normalization of Gadget First’s Inventory Database

Normalization is done to organize data in a database in an efficient manner. The goal of normalization is to eliminate redundant or duplicate data and to make sure that only related data is stored in a table. There are three entities in Gadget First’s inventory database; they are Items_In_Stock entity, Supplier_Details entity and Order_Details entity.  A normal form is a set of guidelines to normalize a database and the normal forms range from the first normal form (1NF) to the fifth normal form (5NF). In this case study, Gadget First’s inventory database is normalized up to the third normal form (3NF).

First Normal Form

The three entities have various attributes like Item Code, Item Description, Price, Quantity_In_Store, Re-Order Level, Re-Order Quantity, Supplier Name, Address, City, Phone Number, Order Number, Item Description, Quantity Ordered, Order Date and total amount as attributes.

In the first normal form you need to create separate tables for each group of related data and identify the primary key. Therefore, for the first entity Items_In_Stock we will group all the data that is related to this entity. The related data for this entity are: Item Code (field type: alphanumeric), Item Description (field type: character), Price (field type: numeric), Quantity_In_Store (field type: numeric), Re-Order Level (field type: numeric), Re-Order Quantity (field type: numeric). In this dataset for Items_In_Stock, only the Item Code column will contain unique data, all other columns will have repeating data. For example, there may be more than one same item description for two items in the table; two items in the table may have the same quantity etc. Therefore, only the Item Code column is unique for each item. Therefore, we set the Item Code as the primary key for this table. There are no further columns with a unique set of data; therefore, there are no secondary keys for this table.

For the Supplier_Details entity group the following sets of related data, Supplier_ID (field type: alphanumeric), Supplier Name (field type: character), Address (field type: alphanumeric), City (field type: character), Phone Number (field type: numeric). The only unique column in this entity is the Supplier_ID column; all other columns will have repeating data. Therefore, the Supplier_ID is the primary key for this table.

For the Order_Details entity group the following sets of related data, Order_ID (field type: alphanumeric), Item Description (field type: character), Quantity Ordered (field type: numeric), Order Date (field type: date), Total Amount (field type: numeric). The only unique column in this entity is the Order_ID row; all other columns will have repeating data. Therefore, the Order_ID is the primary key for this table.

Second Normal Form

In the second normal form, besides meeting the requirements in the first normal form (1NF), you have to create relationships between the tables using foreign keys. A foreign key matches the primary key of the other tables. The foreign key is used for cross-referencing between tables and it is mainly inserted in dependent tables. Therefore, among the three tables you have to identify the dependencies. In the case of Gadget First’s inventory database, the Supplier_Details table is dependent on the Items_In_Stock table to determine the suppliers whose items have crossed the re-order levels. Therefore, insert the primary key of the Items_In_Stock table into the Supplier_Details table as a foreign key. Now, the primary key for the Supplier_Details table is a combination of the primary key of this table and the foreign key. Likewise, the Order_Details table is dependent on the Items_In_Stock table to determine the items to be ordered that has crossed the re-order levels and the Supplier_Details table for information on suppliers for a given item. Therefore, insert the primary keys of both the Items_In_Stock table and the Supplier_Details table into this table as foreign keys. Now, the primary key for the Order_Details table is a combination of the primary key of this table and the foreign keys.

Third Normal Form

Remove columns that are independent of the primary key. In this assignment the Item_Description column and the Total_Amount columns in Order_Details are independent of the primary key, remove those column and the Gadget First Inventory database is normalized up to the third normal form (3NF). The following diagram shows the 3NF-normalized database.
Entity – Relationship Diagram (E – R Diagram)

In the Entity – Relationship diagram for this problem, there are three entities and there are only two types of relationships between the entities, they are, many-to-many type of relationship and one-to-one type of relationship. The entities are Items_In_Stock entity, Supplier entity and Order_Details entity. The Items_In_Stock entity has a many-to-many relationship with the Supplier entity because one supplier can supply many items and many suppliers may supply one item itself. The Items_In_Stock entity also has a many-to-many relationship with the Order_Details entity because many items may be ordered in one order given to a supplier and one item itself may be part of many orders made to different suppliers. There is a one-to-one relationship between the Supplier entity and Order_Details entity because only one order is given to one supplier and one supplier supplies items only for one order. After normalizing the data we get three tables for the three entities and their attributes are listed as columns in each table with primary to identify each item in the table and foreign keys to cross-reference one table with another. A double-edged arrow indicates a many-to-many relationship and a straight-line indicates a one-to-one relationship in the following diagram:

Query Transactions

For example, let us assume for the first entity Item_In_Stock the following field lengths: Item_Code (field type: alphanumeric, length: 8), Item_Description (field type: character, length: 30), Price (field type: numeric, length: 5), Quantity_In_Store (field type: numeric, length: 5), Re_Order_Level (field type: numeric, length: 5), Re_Order_Quantity (field type: numeric, length: 5).

For the second entity Supplier_Details, Supplier_ID (field type: alphanumeric, length: 8), Item _Code (field type: alphanumeric, length: 8), Supplier_Name (field type: character, length: 30), Address (field type: alphanumeric, length: 30), City (field type: character, length: 20), Phone_Number (field type: numeric, length: 5)

For the Order_Details entity we group the following sets of related data, Order_ID (field type: alphanumeric, length: 8), Supplier_ID (field type: alphanumeric, length: 8), Item _Code (field type: alphanumeric, length: 8), Item Description (field type: character, length: 30), Quantity Ordered (field type: numeric, length: 5), Order Date (field type: date, length: 8), Total Amount (field type: numeric, length: 6).

Test Data: Item_In_Stock

Test Data: Supplier_Details

Test Data: Order_Details

Screen Design Of The Actual Database

The name of the database is inventory_control and there are three tables in this database, they are, item_in_stock table, supplier_details, order_details as shown in the following screen.

The item_in_stock table has item_code as the primary key and the supplier_details table has combination of supplier_code and item_code as primary keys. The order_details table has a combination of order_id, item_code and supplier_code as primary keys. All these tables are linked to each other foreign reference keys shown in the database normalization diagrams in the previous sections.

Queries

List all items in stock:

Query: select * from item_in_stock;

List all of the items in each category. Query: select * from item_in_stock where item_code=’dvdsn001’.

List all of the items not in stock. Query: select * from item_in_stock where quantity_in_stock=0;

List all of the items not in stock in each category of item. Query: select * from item_in_stock where item_code=’wash001’ and quantity_in_stock=0;

List all of the suppliers who supply a particular item.

Query: select * from supplier_details where item_code=’tvsn001’;

List all of the suppliers from a particular city.

Query: select * from supplier_details where city=’middlesex’;

List all the transactions made between particular periods.

Query: select * from order_details where order_date between ‘2010-08-12’ and ‘2010-08-15’;

List all of the transactions made by a particular staff.

Query: select * from order_details where staff_name=’Jonathan Stone’;

List all the orders generated during a particular period.

Query: select * from order_details where order_date between ‘2010-08-12’ and ‘2010-08-15’ and order_status=’Generated’;

Shortcomings/bugs if any:

None.

Conclusions and Comments

A thorough understanding of database structures was achieved. I learnt how to identity entities and the relationship between entities, and also to identify the attributes for each entity. Also, I learnt how to normalize the database structures, identify primary keys and how to establish relationships between tables through the use of foreign keys. I also learnt how to design an E-R diagram and also got a better understanding about the purposes of these diagrams during the coursework.

Part 1

The different data model structures, their comparisons and contrasts, and their contribution to database development.

What is a data model? What are the different data model structures?

The process of defining and analyzing data requirements to support the business process of an organization is known as data modeling. Every requirement of data is stored as a conceptual model with data definitions. The implementation of the conceptual model is known as the logical model and the implementation of the conceptual model requires the use of multiple logical data models. There are different data models and techniques used to standardize data and to make the data consistent, predictable and manageable.

A data model may implement one of the following three schemas:

Conceptual schema: Describes the semantics used in a domain, like the entities in a domain and the relationships between the entities. A conceptual model expresses the facts of a domain by using a model.

Logical schema: Describes the structures of information within a domain, like for example, descriptions of tables, classes and XML tags.

Physical schema: Describes the data storing mechanisms used in the real world like the number of partitions required, table spaces and the number of CPU’s required.

The above three perspectives are independent of each other and as such any change in technology may affect the physical schema but the logical and conceptual schemas remain intact.

A detailed data model of a database is known as a database design. The different data modeling methodologies are:

Bottom-up models: this modeling methodology is used mostly in reengineering efforts. The models bases on this methodology start with the existing data structure forms, fields and reports. This is more application specific and an incomplete modeling methodology. The models that are based on this methodology are known as physical data models.

Top-down models:  Logical data models adopt this methodology. Models following this methodology follow an abstract way of gathering information from subject matter experts (SME). Any system designed by using the logical model may not implement all the aspects of the logical model. However, this model serves as the reference point for these systems.

Compare and contrast the different data models and examine their contribution to database development.

The different data models, their comparisons, contrasts and their contribution to database development:

The Entity –relationship (E-R) model: In this model data is described in terms of entities and relationships. The E-R model is an abstract, conceptual representation of structured data. The E-R model is a relational database modeling method used to produce a conceptual model of a relational database system. This model is based on the top-down methodology.

Generic model: This model defines the general relationship type along with the components they try to relate. The generic model creates generally a binary relation and a part-whole relation. A generic model allows classification of any individual thing and specification of a part-whole relationships in a project. By providing for an extensible list of relational types this model is more like a natural language unlike other models that have fixed and limited scope.

Semantic model: Any database management system’s logical structure cannot satisfy the requirements of a conceptual definition. The need for a conceptual view brought into focus the semantic model. This modeling technique defines the meaning of data in terms of the inter-relationship that it has with other data. A semantic model can used for purposes like planning of data resources, building of shared databases, and integration of existing databases. The semantic model integrates relational concepts with powerful abstraction concepts.

Examine case material that focuses on developments such as data mining and data warehousing.

I happened to examine a case material on data mining known as “Assessing Loan risks: A data mining case study. “ by Rob Gerritsen. Data mining involves building the data model, designing an algorithm to implement the model. In this case study, Gerritsen’s company conducted a preliminary study of the data extracted from USDA data warehouse. The sample contained nearly 12,000 records of current mortgages for single-family homes. The sample data included information on the loan amount, payment size, lending date and purpose, the type of asset, the borrowers personal details, and his region. Different data mining models were used to predict the outcomes. The different models can be classified into predictive and descriptive models. Predictive model predicts the value of a particular attribute. The models can predict a customer’s likelihood of switching to a different competitor, fraudulent insurance claims etc. Descriptive models use clustering and association. Clustering bring together similar people, things etc. Association models involves researching on how frequently two or more things happen at the same time. Once you determine the type of model to be used, then the next important task is to design an algorithm to implement the data-mining model. The model used should produce accurate results this is done by comparing the predicted values with the actual values. But the downside of any data-mining algorithm is that there is no algorithm that produces accurate results. Once you have decided on the data-mining model and the algorithm to be used then the next part is identifying the test database. In this case some 12,000 records of the USDA were examined. Gerritsen’s company used the Naïve Bayes algorithm, which requires binning of numeric values. The algorithm binned all numeric values into 5 bins from $0 to $60,000. It then assigned each borrower’s loan amount to a pay-amount bin, which the data-mining algorithms use. The bins were divided into 5 ranges of 12,000 each, starting from $0 to $11,999. The binning ranges were repeatedly adjusted until a satisfactory binning range was found, which improved the model’s accuracy to 67%. Later, irrelevant issues like ‘total amount due’ were pruned from the data that was mined, and decision trees were refined to arrive at the most accurate factors that caused the high-degree of loan defaults with the USDA. In this case data mining helped determine the factors that caused loan defaults. The important factors that influenced loan defaults at the USDA were determined as loan type, type of security, marital status and monthly payment size.

Data mining can be used to predict the exact causes as to why certain events occur and suggest ways to face or avoid those events.

The ability to gather data into optimized databases is known as data warehousing. Data warehousing can be defined as “coordinated, architected and periodic copying of data from various sources into an environment optimized for analytical and internal processing”, Simon, Alan. R (2005).

I happened to examine another case study on data warehousing by Lolopop partners. They served as principals in a data warehouse effort in which there were many users of those data warehouses. During the requirements gathering the lolopop partners found out that high-quality was the number one objective of many users. Even the other objectives of the users were also related to quality. The lolopop partners gathered the requirements into a set of the following objectives.

Create quality information that can be combined with other data sources.

Timely response to request for data

Consistent relation of information

Easy access to information

Make the management to formulate and apply policies and procedures

Manage incoming data from non-integrated sources – This means that data from multiple unrelated sources requires a plan to convert electronic data, manage imaging and document inputs, manage workflow and manage the analysis of data.

Creating reports that are reproducible

The Lolopop team found out that the existing data warehouse systems were used like a bridge to data rather than make an effective use of a company’s information. Therefore, the Lolopop team designed a data warehouse solution that supported complete data communication, command and control capability, and ability to assemble and analyze data by using quality and analytical standards. Therefore, the Lolopop team had to set the quality standards. The first thing they did in their effort to achieve quality was initiating quality concepts.

Quality concepts: A data warehouse must accurately give the truth for the purpose of any meaningful analysis and decision-making. Every data element should be made traceable to its sources and such sources should be verified for integrity.

Data acquisition: Data storage should be unique. Previously analyzed data should be re-producible, any changes in data should be reported with along with the day the change was made and with an explanation of the differences made.

Routing and scheduling: The routing and scheduling mechanism processes the incoming data based on certain rules like whether the objectives can be met or cannot be met or if a remedial action plan is presented.

Analytics: In this one Lolopop component populates the dataset with data elements meeting specified quality standards. Another builds the analysis plan, selects analysis tools and sets the calculations to be performed against the dataset instantiation.

Different approaches to database design.

The different approaches to database design are:

Top-down approach, and

Bottom-up approach

Top-down approach

Logical data models adopt this database design methodology. Models following this methodology follow an abstract way of gathering information from subject matter experts (SME). Any system designed by using a logical data model may not implement all the aspects of the logical model. However, the top-down approach serves as the reference point for these systems.

Bottom-up approach

This database design approach is used mostly in reengineering efforts. The models that are based on this methodology start with the existing data structure forms, fields and reports. This is an application specific and an incomplete design methodology. The models that are based on this methodology are known as physical data models.

Part 2

Apply data analysis and design techniques to develop a fully relational database with minimum of six tables.

For this question, we will take the case study of Gadget First provided for the assignment. There are already three tables in Gadget First’s inventory control database to keep track of items in stock, supplier details and order details. Now let us extend this case study to assume that Gadget First also wants to keep track of all client orders. Assuming that Gadget First is a wholesale dealer in these electronic goods and it has regular clients who order electronic items only from Gadget First. If this is the case, then Gadget First’s inventory control database will have two additional tables, they are, client order details table and client details table. Suppose if some of the customers return some of the defective goods back to Gadget First, then Gadget First needs to keep track of all the goods returned inwards. For this, a separate table is necessary, namely, returns inwards table. Now since there are six tables in the inventory control database we will implement the data analysis and design techniques on this database.

First Normal Form

There are six entities in Gadget First’s inventory database; they are Items_In_Stock, Supplier_Details, Order_Details, client_order_details, client_details and returns_inwards entities. The first three entities have been normalized already now you need to normalize the remaining three entities in this phase.

In the first normal form for client_details, group together all related information for this entity. The related data are customer code (alphanumeric), customer name (character), address (character), city (character) and phone number (numeric). In this dataset for client_details, only the customer code column will contain unique data, all other column will have repeating data. Therefore, we set the Customer Code as the primary key for this table. There are no further columns with a unique set of data; therefore, there are no secondary keys for this table.

For the customer_order_details entity we group the following sets of related data, customer order id(field type: alphanumeric), item description (field type: character), price (field type: numeric), quantity purchased (field type: numeric) and total amount (field type: numeric), order status (field type: character). The only unique column in this entity is the client order id column; all other columns will have repeating data. Therefore, the Client_order_id is the primary key for this table.

For the Returns_inwards entity we group the following sets of related data, returns inwards id (field type: alphanumeric), item description (field type: character), Quantity returned (field type: numeric) and the Return_Date (field type: date). The only unique column in this entity is the returns inwards id column; all other columns will have repeating data. Therefore, the returns inwards id is the primary key for this table.

Second Normal Form

In the second normal form, among the three tables to be normalized you have to identify the dependencies. In the case of Gadget First’s inventory database, the customer_order_details table is dependent on the Items_In_Stock table to determine the availability of items and the customer_code for retrieving customer details. Therefore, insert the primary keys of the Items_In_Stock table and the customer_details table into the customer_order_details table as foreign keys. Now, the primary key for the customer_order_details table is a combination of the primary key of this table and the foreign keys.

Likewise, the returns inwards table is dependent on the customer_order_details table to identify the order information for the item being returned by the customer. Therefore, insert the primary key of customer_order-details table into this table as a foreign key. Now, the primary key for this table is a combination of the primary key of this table and the foreign keys.

Third Normal Form

Remove columns that are independent of the primary key. In this assignment remove the Item_Description column and the Total_Amount columns in client_order_details and the item description column in returns_inwards, as they are independent of the corresponding primary key. The Gadget First Inventory database is now normalized up to the third normal form (3NF).  The 3NF-normalized tables are represented in the following diagram.

Entity – Relationship Diagram (E – R Diagram)

In the Entity – Relationship diagram for this problem, there are six entities and there are only three types of relationships between the entities, they are, many-to-many type of relationship, one-to-many and one-to-one type of relationship. The entities are Items_In_Stock entity, Supplier entity and Order_Details entity, client_details entity, client_order_details_entity and the returns_inwards entity. The Items_In_Stock entity has a many-to-many relationship with the Supplier entity because one supplier can supply many items and many suppliers may supply one item itself. The Items_In_Stock entity also has a many-to-many relationship with the Order_Details entity because many items may be ordered in one order given to a supplier and one item itself may be part of many orders made to different suppliers. There is a one-to-one relationship between the Supplier entity and Order_Details entity because only one order is given to one supplier and one supplier supplies items only for one order. Similarly, there is a many-to-many relationship between items_in_stock and client_order_details entity, one-to-many relationship between customer_order_details and customer_details entities, and a one-to-many relationship between customer_order_details and returns_inwards entities. After normalizing the data we get six tables for the six entities. The attributes of the six tables are listed as columns in each of these tables. Each table has a primary key to identify each item in the table and a foreign key to cross-reference one table with another. A double-edged arrow indicates a many-to-many relationship and a straight-line indicates a one-to-one relationship. A simple arrow indicates a one-to-many relationship in the following diagram:

Verify that a design meets user requirements and provide justification of the database design.

The E-R diagram above follows the top-down approach and it is follows a logical schema of designing a database. By using database normalization I have verified that the design meets user requirements. E-R diagrams are widely used in software engineering to determine the most appropriate design for database in a relational database system. Database normalization ensures that there are no duplicate fields in the database and only the relevant details are stored in a database.

Part 3

Query Transactions

List all the items ordered

Query: Select * from customer_order_details

List all orders for a particular item

Query: select * from customer_order_details where item_code=’DVDth001’;

List all items for a particular order

Query: select * from customer_order_details where client_order_id=’IBM0001’;

List all customers

Query: select * from cust_details

List all items returned

Query: select * from returns_inwards

List all items returned by a particular order

Query: select * from returns_inwards where return_id=’ret0010’;

Part 4

The documentation provided above supports the implementation of the database. Through the process of normalization, the verification of data has been carried out and only relevant fields are incorporated in the tables, there are no duplication of fields in the database and no duplicate keys. The validation process has been taken care of through restriction on the type of data entered. For example, in customer name only characters can be entered when you specify the field type as character. To prevent the field from showing null entries specify the command ‘NOT NULL’ at the end of a query for adding fields to a table. A screen shot of the validation procedure is shown below:

Evaluation of testing techniques and application of one of the testing techniques to database design.

Many testing techniques can be applied on a database design to uncover errors if any. The different testing techniques are unit testing, black-box testing, database re-factoring etc. In this assignment an evaluation of the unit testing and database re-factoring technique is done.

Unit testing technique: This testing technique is used in database design and provides a structured and automated way of testing each part of a database system. Mostly developers who develop a component do the unit tests and would write the test cases for the component. The testing of these components in an isolated manner to ensure component behavior before integrating with the main system is known as unit testing. Unit tests can be run on database stored procedures, functions and triggers.

The different types of unit tests are:

Feature tests: Testing the core features of the database from the database user’s perspective is known as a feature test.

Schema test: This test is used to test the database schema. Testing a view to see if it returns the expected results etc are examples of a schema test.

Security test: Testing the security of the database is done in this phase. Here you test to see if unauthorized users gain entry to the database by testing the database using negative tests.

Stock-Data test: Data that is used infrequently is known as stock data and many databases have these seed data. This test ensures that your seed data exists in your database

The unit testing technique is a very good technique to test your database design. This testing technique completely tests all the components of a database and is more advantageous than manual testing.

Database Re-factoring technique: This is a technique in which a simple change to a schema improves the database design but retains the behavior and semantics of a database.

The purpose of database re-factoring is to:

Safely fix existing legacy databases: Use database re-factoring to improve data and the quality of data in legacy databases using this technique. This is the only technique that can be used to improve legacy databases.

Support evolutionary development: Most of today’s development processes support evolutionary programming and therefore database design also must evolve. Database re-factoring techniques help database designs to evolve.

I applied the unit testing technique on my database design, and the following screens show how I did that and whether my database design passed the test.

First, add the test in the unit testing application:

Name the test as:

Add a row count condition

Set the number of rows to test to 15.

Run the test

And the inventory_control database passed the test.

References:

Gerritsen, Rob. “Assesing Loan Risks: A Data Mining Case Study“

Simon,  Alan R. “Data Warehousing For Dummies”.

Wesenberg , David P & . Peterson , Joanne E. “L o l o p o p D a t a W a r e h o u s e C a s e S t u d y” Abator Information Services and Lolopop Partners, 2005.

FIPS Publication 184 released of IDEF1X by the Computer Systems Laboratory of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). 21 December 1993

Semantic data modeling” In: Metaclasses and Their Application. Book Series Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Publisher Springer Berlin / Heidelberg. Volume Volume 943/1995.

Whitten, Jeffrey L.; Lonnie D. Bentley, Kevin C. Dittman. (2004). Systems Analysis and Design Methods. 6th edition.

Len Silverston, W.H.Inmon, Kent Graziano (2007). The Data Model Resource Book. Wiley, 1997.

American National Standards Institute. 1975. ANSI/X3/SPARC Study Group on Data Base Management Systems; Interim Report. FDT (Bulletin of ACM SIGMOD) 7:2.

The Republic of Somalia is at the Horn of Africa where it projects into the Indian Ocean. Before European intervention; “The land of the Somali people, much of it arid and inhospitable, has for thousands of years been close to civilization and international trade” (Historyworld.net para. 1). European interest was started when its ports served as a stopover point for British trade in India. French and Italian concerns soon found its way to coastline of Somalia. The existing political divisions before foreign interplay was divided among chieftains of Somali clans; the country has Islam as its predominant religion and clan loyalty is strong is prominent in its culture. The year 1960 brought independence to Italian and British Somaliland, which merged as the Republic of Somalia; French Somalia became independent Djibouti in 1977. The bloodiest upheavals in colonial time were in British Somalia.
A major theme in the newly independent Somalia was the aspiration to reunite the three Somali groups annexed by other countries during colonial divisions. These are the French Somaliland, those in Northern Kenya, and in Ethiopia; the Haud and Ogaden regions. The Ogaden region has its history of conflicts between the Ethiopians and Somalis, way back in 1884, the colonial powers armed the Ethiopians which then raided Ogaden Somali villages; killing men with the women and children sold as slaves (Mahdi para. 2). The division facilitated by colonial powers placed the Ogaden Somalis trapped within Ethiopia. Territories in Ethiopia and Kenya have not been recovered due to Western support for both countries. This pushed Somalia to turn towards to Soviet Union for military aid in the 1960s. The first elections were held in 1969 was won by the Somali Youth League (SYL) which was originally organized to seek for independence from colonial control in British Somaliland. As SYL became authoritarian, the president, Muhammad Egal was assassinated.
With the resulting power vacuum, the head of the army, Mohamed Siad Barre seized power and imposed a brutal Marxist dictatorship. By December 1992 the situation is such that the UN actively intervenes, sending a force of 35,000 troops in Operation Restore Hope (Historyworld.net para. 27).

Works

Historyworld.net. “History of Somalia.” 2010. Web. 24 Nov. 2010
Mahdi, A. “The Ogaden People: Past and Present.” Sidamaconcern.com. 01 Mar. 2009. Web 24
Nov. 2010