“Mary Queen of Scots Got Her Head Chopped Off” by Liz Lochhead and “Antigone” by Jean Anouilh

Mary Queen of Scots Got Her Head Chopped Off” by Liz Lochhead and “Antigone” by Jean Anouilh seem at first sight to have little in common. However, both plays include themes as conflict, sisters’ rivalry and female sexuality; themes that are interesting to reflect on to understand the social realities depicted in the works. “Mary Queen of Scots Got Her Head Chopped off” is set in the 16th century and is therefore based on real historical events that serve the purpose of representing the way of life of that particular period. The relationship between Mary Stuart and Elizabeth I, with all that includes in terms of conflict and rivalry, is well drawn on in the play illustrating both the sphere within the Royal court as well as the hierarchical functioning of British society during the 16th century. “Antigone” deals on the other hand with similar themes of conflict and struggle for power through the depicted clash between Antigone and Creon. Both plays shed therefore light on the nature of power, fate, choice and conflict particularly in relation to the royal authoritative zones. These notions and themes are especially well understood through the particular performance style adopted in the enactment of each play. Whether the focus is on the stimulation of the intellectuality or the emotions of the audience makes a great difference in the overall perception and comprehension among the viewers of the particular themes and ideas conveyed in the play. In short, “Mary Queen of Scots Got Her Head Chopped Off” by Liz Lochhead and “Antigone” by Jean Anouilh are interesting works to examine from a historical perspective in order to understand the dynamics of the social realities depicted and come to terms with the most effective performance methods through which to convey these ideas most successfully.

Reading both plays from a historical perspective helps shed light on themes as rivalry, conflict, struggle for power and female sexuality within the relative societies depicted in each work. These themes are undeniably present in both works and help illuminate the functioning of the society in general and the royal arena in particular. In “Antigone”, the subject of conflict is present in the struggle between Creon and Antigone as well as in the complicated relationship between the Sophocles” sisters: Ismene and Antigone. Both appear to be rivals and opposites in character. While Ismene is presented as reasonable and timid, Antigone is moody, impulsive and more of a dominant personality in terms of her continuous persistence in resisting the overall definition of what constitutes her girlhood. (Spark-notes) This opposition sheds light on the social status of women during the era of the play. Women were expected to be obedient, full-figured creatures. Therefore, women as Antigone who resisted the general pattern were frowned down at and perceived with suspicion. For this reason, the conflict between Ismene and Antigone is a reflection of the clash between the dominant accepted social view of womanhood and the feminine desire to revolt against it. Whereas Ismene is the good appropriate girl, Antigone curses her feminine aspects and voices her hatred and rejection of the manifestation of feminism that Ismene embodies throughout her life. This is how the themes of conflict and sisters’ rivalry are closely knitted to the idea of women’s position and status in the play’s society.

“Mary Queen of Scots Got Her Head Chopped Off” is very similar to “Antigone” in its manner of approaching these same themes to illuminate notions as womanhood and power struggle as essential traits of the authoritarian power circles. The conflict between Mary and Elizabeth that leads to Mary’s beheading is a story that reflects woman’s power to shape history. In the same manner as Antigone binds her sister to a tree as a child to stage her mutilation, Elizabeth kills her own sister to secure the thrown of England. (Publisher’s Weekly) These almost inhumanly cruel and extremely self-centered actions prove essential to survive in a male dominated world. It is this determined female energy and willingness to ensure expression of strength at any expense that makes Antigone and Elizabeth stand out in both plays as the embodiment of a new voice of feminism. The two plays reflect thus on the idea of the necessity of social hierarchical change especially in regard to women’s position. In short, these two literary works manage to effectively shed light on the subjects of struggle, power, conflict, and sisters’ rivalry which all illuminates the idea of womanhood within the relative societies depicted in each play.

“Mary Queen of Scots Got Her Head Chopped Off” and “Antigone” are two literary works that are thus concerned with the depiction of similar themes ranging from power struggle to the relative perception of womanhood. It is however interesting and crucial to reflect on the extent of each play’s successful realistic depiction of the subjects and people included in order to shed light on the most effective performance methods through which to convey these ideas even more successfully. For example, in “Mary Queen of Scots Got Her Head Chopped Off” it is noticeable that the events are set in 16th century Britain to correspond with the historical data available in regard to the plays’ events that did take place in real life. However, what is also interesting to note in the style of writing is the author’s frequent usage of anachronisms that confuse and alienate the reader. This technique serves to implicate the author’s need to distance the plays’ historical events, which factually occurred, from the realm of realistic representation. The author’s style and tone suggests also that though the play represents life, it is no imitation of it. This is especially noticeable in the parallels drawn between the events within the 16th century and the modern age in terms of the themes examined so far. What also underlines the author’s attempts to alienate the reader or viewer from perceiving all depicted as factual and realistic is the choice of the narrator: La Corie. The narrator sheds light on the events and characters and hence leads the reader through the play. The logical conclusion would be that his role is founded on illuminating the play to the reader or viewer rather than providing contradictory evidence or statements to confuse and hence alienate him personally as a reliable narrator. However, this technique is very noticeable in the narrator’s style which suggests Liz Lochhead’s desire to distance the reader from the events as factual representations of historical reality. The author’s adoption of this approach consequentially stimulates the reader or viewer to form his own opinion and rely on his own interpretations and intellectuality to comprehend the depicted social reality in the play. This suggests a similar approach in the actual enactment of the play itself.

The performance of the aforementioned two plays ought to rely on very meticulous and well-thought of methods to effectively convey the complicated themes to the audience. Whether these methods would focus on provoking the intellectuality or emotions of the audience is of great significance to the overall impact of the play at the end. Planned and organized performance is hence very essential to bring out all the themes discussed so far better to the foreground. The similarities in themes between the two plays suggest the ability to approach both in a similar manner when it comes to the envisionment of reliable performance techniques to use on stage. Since both plays include subjects crucial to the understanding of serious and grand ideas as power and women’s changing social position and sexuality, a focus on stimulating the intellectuality of the audience through the adoption of alienating performance techniques as captions, the enactment of the plays as “a play within a play”, the stylized nature of the chorus and the direct address of the audience, could bring about beneficial results in regard to the in-depth comprehension of the performed act. These techniques would place emphasis on the theatricality of the production and remind the audience constantly of the formality of the chorus which is thus a very effective alienating device. This would not bring about complete emotional un-attachment from the play among the audience but would serve to remind them of the fact that anything viewed is performed but nevertheless still representative of a certain undeniable human reality perceivable in past and current societies through the continuous struggle for change and power. The performers’ ability to effectively convey these themes with an emotional force combined with an intellectual distance is the only way through which to achieve a balance that would enable the audience to be still aware of the emotional facets of the events while focusing on the intellectual significance of it. (Burke) However, balancing these two aspects of performance can prove to be more complicated in practice and would require an adoption of different philosophies from various theatre performance critics and experts such as Brecht and Stanislavski.

Creating a self-contained drama on live stage is not an easy thing to accomplish without the necessary background knowledge of the essential theatre theories that will guide the performance. Telling a story in the most effective manner requires a certain understanding of the existing theories regarding theatre or performance. The range from Aristotle’s view of the theatre to Konstantin Stanislavski, Bertolt Brecht, Orson Welles, Antonin Artaud and Peter Brook. Aristotle approached theatre from a simple angle. He argued that any performance required six essential ingredients as plot, character, idea, language, music and spectacle. (Hatcher, p.21)Konstantin Stanislavski on the other hand is considered to be the founder of theater technique because he is in fact the first person to write about the subject. For this reason, most of what is known today as modern western theatre is somehow based on his system in which he advocates for exploring a character from the ‘inside out’ and the ‘outside in’. His theatre philosophy or his system is mainly focused on training actors to provide the most effective performance. The focus in this training is on improving the faculties of concentration, voice, physical skills, harmony, analysis, observation and personalization. His theory advocates also for “living the part” enacted during a performance through referring the events to a personal emotional context or using imagination, in case the first is too painful, to fully comprehend the act enacted in order to convey it with emotional force to the audience. Therefore, Stanislavski’s approach and solution for finding a balance in the performer’s act that would evoke both the intellectuality and emotions of the audience, is based on the theory that actors should first experience their own emotions and embody them through the theatre language which in its turn focuses on improving the concentration and observation of the actor to have him convey his moving experience most successfully to the audience. (Roose-Evans, p.6-7) If this approach is applied to the two plays the outcome would be the provocation of deep thought and feelings as a result of the almost live and realistic performance that is not an act but a representation of the actors’ lives and experiences placed within the context of the plays’ events. This would be a dramatic manner through which to approach the performance of the plays as it would bring everything enacted to life. However, the two plays can also be approached from a more rationalistic angle such as through the adoption of Brecht’s approach to theatre.

The performance of both plays could also be approached from Brecht’s perspective: the epic theatre. Most of Brecht’s techniques revolve generally around preventing the audience from identifying wit the actions seen while maintaining focus on provoking rational self-reflection. These techniques focus on reminding the spectator that all seen is a representation of reality and not reality itself. Brecht called this the Verfremdungseffekt which includes for example exaggerated stage lighting, direct address of the actors to the audience, and the use of songs or captions that explain and present the events. It is thus possible and logical to approach both plays through the usage of a combination of different alienating styles that range from captions and interludes to the enactment of the plays as a “play within a play”. This would enable the audience to concentrate its energy more on the comprehension of the themes discussed.  The use of captions as is done in episodic narrative theatre could be accomplished through the display of the events to come in writing or through simply announcing them out by reading out. In either way, the audience is forced to focus its energy on interpreting the events to come rather than just following the story since it has already been announced. This is an effective alienating device that could be very useful in the performance of both plays. Thereby, another method used in the episodic narrative theatre that would be beneficial in the enactment of both “Mary Queen of Scots Got Her Head Chopped Off” and “Antigone” is through the inclusion of interludes in which the performers stand back from their roles and comment on the actions of the characters. These interludes would be most effective in the aftermath of a scene full of action as it would again channel the audience’s focus away from the story line to the significance and meaning behind it. The “play within the play” could on the other hand be done through the inclusion of a presenter, a narrator, in the form of a singer or actor who guides the audience throughout. This presenter’s role would not be simply confined to narration but would include also commentary. All the aforementioned techniques and methods would provide opportunity for reflection on the themes in the play away from the distraction generally generated by suspense which is thus effectively eliminated through the aforementioned devices. (teachit.co.uk)

It is therefore undeniable that an effective performance can transform the audience’s perception towards many themes and issues which is why theatre has been a mode of conveying ideas of great social and political significance. A successful and well-planned live performance would greatly impact the perception of the viewer. For these reasons, effective methods through which to convey the themes in the plays of “Mary Queen of Scots Got Her Head Chopped Off” by Liz Lochhead and “Antigone” by Jean Anouilh are important to consider in advance. Whether the enactment of the events focuses on emotionally engaging the audience or intellectually motivating them could make a great difference as has been mentioned. As a result of the two plays’ inclusion of several significant and complicated themes whose importance is neither confined to the ancient Greek period or 16th century British era, a focus on stimulating the intellectual faculty of the audience through the adoption of several alienating devices as, among others, the direct address of the audience, the inclusion of a “play within a play”, the performers’ commentary on events during interludes and the use of captions, is deemed most effective in underlining the full dimensions and dynamics of these two interesting plays.

Works Cited

Burke, Alison. “Characterizing the Chorus: Individual and Collective in Four Recent Productions of Greek Tragedy.” The Open University. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Apr. 2010. <www2.open.ac.uk/ClassicalStudies/GreekPlays/Seminar02/AlisonFinal.htm#_ednref38>.

Hatcher, Jeffrey  The art & craft of playwriting. Writer’s Digest Books, 2000. Print.

Roose-Evans, James. Experimental Theatre from Stanislavsky to Peter Brook. New York: Routledge, 2002. Print.

“Spark-Notes: Antigone: Themes, Motifs, and Symbols.” SparkNotes: Today’s Most Popular Study Guides. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Apr. 2010. <http://www.sparknotes.com/drama/antigone/themes.html>.

“Studying Bertolt Brecht.” Teachit.co.uk – Home. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Apr. 2010. <http://www.teachit.co.uk/armoore/drama/brecht.htm>.

The Life of Mary Queen of Scots: An Accidental Tragedy.” Publishers Weekly 256.19 (2009): 41-42. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 6 Apr. 2010.

The issue of universal health coverage has been discussed by highlighting the advantages of the health reforms along with opposing views from the critics, who consider it as a waste of money, especially, in the ongoing economic recession (Gruber, “Universal Health Insurance Coverage,” par. 1). It was emphasized that the universal health coverage would help the state governments to improve upon the existing infrastructure in health care for children, including the State Children’s Health Insurance Program (SCHIP), through the funds made available by the federal government (Gruber, “Universal Health Insurance Coverage,” par. 3). Such incentives that “make affordable health insurance available to lower-income families would improve not only the health of these families but also the health of our economy” (Gruber, “Universal Health Insurance Coverage,” par. 4). It is true because the poor section of American population would be able to get preventive care and treat the disease at an early stage when the health care costs would also be the least. Besides, the provision of universal health coverage would ensure better productivity of the workforce, who would have unhindered access to other small-size companies that could not offer health insurance to their employees (Gruber, “Universal Health Insurance Coverage,” par. 5). Moreover, these optimistic reforms, which would need $50 billion of investment for 5 years, would replace the unorganized infrastructure by computerized health care records, thereby, creating more employment opportunities for highly skilled professionals (Gruber, “Universal Health Insurance Coverage,” par. 6). It was concluded that the health care reforms bill on universal coverage must consider the ways to control the health care costs, just like The Netherlands and Switzerland had done successfully (Gruber, “Universal Health Insurance Coverage,” par. 10). This article was taken from a reputed professional journal of medicine, namely, “The New England Journal of Medicine” and is highly reliable because it is published by Massachusetts Medical Society, which is an accredited professional organization. In addition to the above reliable article, the other two sources from its bibliography are mentioned in the “Works Cited” page (“America, embrace health care reform” and “Medicare Spending for Previously Uninsured Adults”).

46 million Americans, which comprise 15% of the American population, lack the basic health insurance (Curry, “Everyone into the risk pool,” par. 4). Since these poor Americans cannot afford to pay for their health care, they procrastinate their visit to the doctor, and hence, they do not make any use of preventive care, including diagnosis and early treatment. Consequently, this puts a burden on the health care system and the national economy when these poor people visit the emergency centers for treatment of their diseases that could have been prevented at an early stage. If every American has to buy mandatory universal health coverage, with the exception of poor Americans having less than $16,250 per annum of earnings, then minor illnesses would be treated at an early stage at a considerably lower cost (Curry, “Everyone into the risk pool,” par. 3). Since 33% of the uninsured Americans are in the age group of 19 to 29 years and 42% in the age group of 30 to 54 years, it can be inferred that 75% of the uninsured Americans are healthier and would also use the health care to the minimum (Curry, “Everyone into the risk pool,” par. 17). Hence, the overall cost for providing universal health coverage would be controlled. This article was taken from a reliable source, namely, “MSNBC.” Both the articles from journal and magazine carry authority because they have statistical data to corroborate their findings. However, the audience for journal article is medical professionals, while for the magazine article, the audience is general public.

Works Cited

Attaran, Amir, Stanbrook, Matthew B, & Hebert, Paul C. “America, embrace health care

reform.” 2009. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 18 March 2010.

<http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/181/8/E128>

Curry, Tom. “Everyone into the risk pool- or else.” 11 August 2009. MSNBC. 18 March 2010.

<http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/31782553/ns/politics-capitol_hill/>

Gruber, Jonathan. “Universal Health Insurance Coverage or Economic Relief – A False

Choice.” 29 January 2009. The New England Journal of Medicine. 18 March 2010.

<http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/360/5/437>

McWilliams, J.M., Meara, Ellen, Zaslavsky, Alan M, & Ayanian John Z. “Medicare Spending

for Previously Uninsured Adults.” 1 December 2009. Annals of Internal Medicine. 18

March 2010. <http://www.annals.org/content/151/11/757.full>

Group identity has been a common trait in the American history for many years and religious identity is not an exception. Christians, Muslims, and Jews are all defined through a series of practices, beliefs, and symbols that have been shaped after so many years. Black-Americans have not been exempted from these traits, in fact, the church has been, and always will remain an integral part of the black community and their history. The black church has been a foundation of strength and hope for the African American society (Clark, Hine and Harrold 18). Historically, African Americans have been associated with Christian worship. Protestantism has received immense following from many blacks who attend Methodists, Baptist, and Pentecostal churches. In as much as African Americans enjoy their freedom of worship, its history, nevertheless, is full of faith, survival and struggle.

African-American struggle for recognition, rights, and freedom is a terrific story in the American history. The black church’s involvement in this history cannot be ignored. The first black churches and congregation were founded before 1800 by freed slaves. These churches were predominant in industrial cities, which attracted free blacks who were in search of jobs. By 1806, Petersburg had the largest number of free blacks, although Philadelphia, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Savanna, Georgia attracted a remarkable number as well. At the end of slavery, freed blacks resorted to turned to church facilities and established congregations for worship. This culminated to a distinctive and empowered form of Christianity that formed the present-day black spiritual tradition. It should be understood that the slavery euphoria had not cooled off; therefore, blacks could not establish the black church in the south. The south was a predominant White region and African-Americans were banned worship in the same churches as whites.

Why and how the black church played a vital role throughout history

Just like other black churches, the first African Baptist Church in Savanna, Georgia has contributed to the shaping of the rich American history. Its leaders and followers were on the forefront in championing for the African-American freedom and rights. During the civil war, the Savanna Baptist church was used as a part of the secret Underground Railroad. Secret meetings, which discussed pertinent issues like fighting oppression, were held at this old church.

Freed slaves had nowhere to turn to apart from the church. The church was a closely knit society from which the freed slaves found solace. This meant that these freed slaves depended on the church for direction. The church has played a pivotal role in the history of America because people believed in it (Clark, Hine and Harrold 102). Another reason as to why the black church played a vital role in the shaping of American history is because God had a hand in everything the leaders and followers did. God does not feel good when his human creation suffers, more so under the hand of fellow beings. The huge following the black church had contributed immensely to our history; these churches were entwined together as a family. This attribute enabled the church to form a strong clout that no force could quell it.

The black church is among various institutions that have played an integral part in the history of the United States. The black church’s hand in the American Civil Rights Movement can not be ignored. Through their moral struggle; the black church changed the imperfect image African Americans were associated with during slavery. Unlike white churches, the black church preached equality; to them, every body was the same before the eyes of God. The whites argued that there was a clear distinction between a master and his slave. This meant that the blacks (slaves) were lesser beings to their masters (whites). The black church changed this perception by encouraging its members to fight for their God given right of freedom.

It is evident that the black church played a crucial role in the rich history of the United States of America. The influence that the black church has on the history of this country is highlighted in the African-American Civil Rights Movement. Racial discrimination was exceedingly rampant in the United States before the African-American Civil Rights Movement. Since the black church had the leadership role, it encouraged its congregations to take part in this nonviolent movement. Rev. Doctor Martin Luther King Jr. was a Baptist church leader, and among the proponents of this movement. He took advantage of his church leadership to spark flames of the movement (Clark, Hine and Harrold 284).

Holt (98) argues that the blacks heeded their church leaders’ advise; they toed the line and started to fight for their rights. A good example of the church’s involvement occurred in 1955. In this year, King and Nixon led their congregation into the Montgomery Bus Boycott. They were [protesting against the arrest of Rosa Parks who had refused to comply with the Jim Crow Law. This law stipulated that blacks were supposed to give up their sits to the whites while travelling. The protest lasted for one year, and it resulted to the bombing of King’s house and his arrest. Through their faith and trust in God, this protest bore fruits.

In 1957, King found the Southern Leadership Conference; this non-violent movement was supposed to use the power of the black church to push the reforming of civil rights forward. In 1963; this movement and other like-minded formed the March on Washington for Freedom and Jobs protest (Clark, Hine and Harrold 108).This protest was meant to force the government to recognize the presence of learned blacks; who could do the same jobs as their white counterparts or even better. Civil right advocate Rev. James Orange was arrested in 1965 for disorderly conduct. He was accused of inciting students to participate in the “Blood Sunday,” and to aid in voting drives. Orange was sent to jail for contributing to the misbehavior of the youth.  Twenty six year old Jimmie Lee Johnson, was shot on the stomach for participating in the blood Sunday march; he succumbed to the injuries caused to him by the bullet eight days after this march. Pastor Ralph Mark Gilbert of the first Baptist Church in Savanna, Georgia was a Batista leader and a civil rights leader as well. He served as the president of the National Association for the Advancement of colored People (NAACP). Under his leadership, many blacks were allowed to vote after the reorganization of the local chapter. Moreover, the first black police officers were hired and a black mayor for Savanna was elected. To honor his work; the Ralph Mark Gilbert Civil Rights Museum was built.

Why political leaders and influence come from the church

Most political leaders and influences come from the church because the congregations believe in them. The blacks believed that anything their leaders say come from God; therefore, should be adhered to always. The influence that these leaders have on their followers enables them to seek political offices. These leaders are assured of their follower’s support if they seek political offices. They are sure that their followers would elect them to these offices because they believe in their leadership abilities. Just like in the Bible, Religious leaders make good Political leaders. The black church produced many political leaders because these leaders were the eyes of the congregations (Holt 122). They had to show their followers the way towards freedom.  Since many blacks were hopeless, religious leaders cum political leaders gave them hope.

In conclusion, the roots of many historical figures in the American history can be traced back to the black church. Bayard Rustin, Martin Luther King Jr., Whitney Young, Dorothy Height, and Roy Wilkin are some of the historical figures who fought so hard for the liberation of the blacks. The Post-civil right era has its own crop of black leaders. In 1984 and 1988, civil right leader Rev. Jesse Jackson contested for the Democratic Party’s presidential. His contest brought unparalleled support and leverage to the blacks in the United States. In 1989, Wilder Douglass was elected as the first black governor in U.S. history. This long history was sealed on January 29, 2009, when Barack Obama was elected as the 44th and also the first black president.

Works Cited

Clark, Darlene., Hine, William, and Harrold, Stanley. The African-American Odyssey. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2002. Print.

Holt, Thomas. Major Problems in African American History: From Freedom to Freedom Now.  Virginia: Wordsworth Publishing, 2000. Print.

The model employed in this study involves analyzing the previously published literature and research findings on the issue of succession planning in family owned businesses, and extending this discussion to investigate the relative practices in Kuwait as far as this subject-matter is concerned. Family-owned businesses have always been confronted with grave concerns about succession planning, irrespective of the locations where the businesses were founded ( Ciampa & Watkins, 1999). This realization points to three significant and direct criteria that are structurally related and helpful in understanding all issues pertaining to the past occurrence of successes or failures in family-owned businesses’ succession planning: (1) the refusal of the possible successors to recognize the existing management leadership of the business; (2) rejection of potential successors by the administrating groups; (3) the administrating groups fail to honor the potential successors, even though generally recognized by the family owing to certain undisclosed reasons.

Critical analysis of literature has also indicated that the three main issues highlighted above could be better explained by associating them with five strategic factors that determine the execution of succession planning in family-owned businesses. These factors include (i) Individual factors, (ii) relationship factors, (iii) context factors, (iv) financial factors and (v) process factors. It is interesting to detect that these five factors overlap as further investigations are launched on the issue of succession. In Kuwait, other minor mitigating factors may include but not restricted to religion, social status, personal intelligence and other important issues. However, sharp similarities exist among all cases of family-owned business successions; and this phenomenon indicates the generality of the issue (Sharma & Rao, 2000).

2.1 Individual Factors

It has been discovered that individual factors play a significant role in the issue of succession in family-owned businesses: this is against the backdrop that those who are involved in the process are classified into two different categories-the successor and the incumbent (Massis, et al., 2008). In Kuwait, family-owned businesses are of different types: they could be huge oil companies, agricultural firms or farms, trading and commodities’ businesses and so on (Oxford Business Group, 2008). And each of these businesses consists of the two categories-successor and incumbent. So, how does the nature of the successors indicate the possibility for successful transfer of business leadership power within a Kuwaiti family?

2.1.1  Lack of adequate business acumen in successor (s)

It is unfortunate that succession planning may become impossible if the successors are found to be lacking in the necessary managerial capability needed to run the business they are expected to assume its mantle of leadership (Morris, et al., 1996: Handler, 1990). Apart from on-the-job training, future successors in Kuwait are not necessarily groomed with the intention that they would take over the family business one day. It will have been wrong to think about such an issue when the head or leader of the family who heads the family is still alive (Parker, 2007). Only in recent times that members of some families are sent to universities in the West to acquire some useful knowledge in business administration in preparation for their eventual take-over of the family business (Parker, 2007)

2.1.2 Disinterestedness shown by the possible successor (s)

In a situation whereby a potential successor demonstrates acute disinterestedness in taking over the leadership of the business, this may cause the other decision-makers involved in the succession process to reject the successor, irrespective of his position or status in the family pedigree. This reveals that such a person will not be motivated in running the business successfully (Hoy & Verser, 1994). Not all Kuwaiti family mandated that their children should be involved in the day-to-day running of the family businesses (Al-Hijji, 2010). Hence, this kind of practice results in unmotivated and fearful future business leaders in the area: an attribute that may lead a family business into total failure if not avoided.

2.1.3 Sudden death of the known successor (s)

Kuwait, like every other Arab nation operates familial hegemony where the eldest male child of the family is expected to automatically become the next leader in case the head of the family has died. But in some unfortunate instances, the potential successors may also lose their own lives due to some natural or uncontrollable circumstances. In such situation, a vacuum will be created, and this may cause some difficulties in carrying out smooth succession process (Handler, 1990). To quickly fill up the vacant position in the family business, some clans have resulted in appointing a relative to do the job or even appoint unrelated private administrators to manage the affairs of the business (Handler, 1990). This circumstance may create some ethical problems among the rest family members if they are concerned about the success of the family business in the future, or wishing to jealously guard the business secrets that had helped the family succeed. An issue a total stranger may not worry about.

On the other hand, the actions of the incumbents are also a serious issue of concern in the process of transferring family business leadership into the hands of any qualified, self-motivated and experienced successor (s).

2.1.4  Diehard incumbent can derail the succession planning

It is a common practice in Kuwait that if the first son does not perform to the expectation, the second son will take over from him to save the family business from uneventful collapse (2002). This practice could turn out to be ineffective if the incumbent (first son) has developed a strong liking for his position as the manager of the family business (Bjuggreen & Sund, 2001). The incumbent will strongly resist a change of leadership for the family business; hence, the succession procedures will be truncated.

2.1.5  When incumbent is at the centre of some events

In a circumstance where the incumbent engages in activities like divorce, marriage, or childbirth, it is likely that these events will hinder smooth transfer of business leadership to the successor (Bjuggreen & Sund, 2001). In Kuwait, business leaders are routinely involved in state functions or forum; if the incumbent is engaged in such a forum for a long period of time, this could also slow the process of transition into the new business manager. Divorce, childbirth and marriage can affect the actions of the incumbent in a way that it may take a longer period of time to allow a successor to take over the family business. In a situation there are personal rancor among the family members, the family business operations may be grounded during this hiatus (Ciampas & Watkins, 1999) .

2.2  Relationship Factor

The level of relationship within a family or a group of relatives could also determine the extent of success when dealing with the transition of business leadership from the incumbent to the successor ( Astrachan & Shanker, 2003; Martin, 2001). If there are rancor and unhealthy discord among members of the business family, this will definitely affect any effort to transfer the leadership of the business from one member to the other. These issues are described comprehensively in the following sub-titles.

2.2.1  Unhealthy Parent-child Relationship

Succession planning in a family where there is unhealthy relationship between the parent (possibly father) and the child who will succeed him sometimes makes the process unsuccessful (Dyer & Panicheva Mortensen, 2005). In order to prevent dangerous relationships from occurring within a Kuwaiti family, emphasis is laid on the moralistic important of Islam, whereby children are urged to accord more respect to their earthly parents (Ghabra, 1987).

2.2.2 Disharmony within a family

Constant misunderstanding within a family could make the members of the family hate each other’s gut (Goldenberg & Goldenberg, 2007). If attempts are not made to resolve any lingering disagreements among family members prior to the discussion about succession, such a problem may prevent smooth transition-and the family business will suffer.

2.2.3  Sensitive Nature of the Family Members

If family members are always the type that are quite sensitive about the issue of making the strategic decision, it may be difficult to quickly agree on a successor as Kuwaitis strongly believe in reach a common consensus on most issues (Ghabra, 1987; Al-Hijji, 2010). And overt reliance on the decision of a prominent member of the family, whom others deferred to, may delay the succession planning process.

2.2.4  Unreliable Successors

The family members are likely going to reject a successor they deem unreliable: this is because many family members would be unsure the successor could make good judgment about running the day-to-day operations of the company. This stigma of unreliability may force the successor to be defensive, and possibly cause a family rancor that could threaten smooth transfer of business leadership (Gallos, 2008).

2.2.5  Inadequate Commitment on the Family Part

The reality is that family members are generally going to show uncommitted support to a successor that lacks merit, business acumen, and the willingness to serve. The philosophy in most family businesses is that of loyalty to all the members (Galetic, 2002). A successor who lacks complete loyalty to all the family members may be inappropriate to represent the interests of all the members in the company;, hence, the family members may reserve their commitment to such a successor base on his or her character.

2.2.6  Non-members’ Influence on Succession Planning

It has been discovered that non-members can sometimes constitute a setback in the process of changing the leadership of a family business. This is evident in circumstances whereby there is a quarrel or some disagreement among the non-member, the incumbent and the successor. This problem can get complicated when the proposed successor had had some fights with the non-members (Gersick, 1997).  There could be conditions for distrust, non-commitment and total disagreement on the part of non-member when it comes to the issue of supporting the candidacy of the proposed successor (Bjuggreen & Sund, 2001). The non-member could be managers, auditors, or other officials of the company whose position in the company matters a lot for the progress of the business.

2.3.0  Financial Factors

Irrespective of the level of discipline in a Kuwaiti family due to the Islamic view on wealth possession and other monetary concerns, most family businesses still inculcate the art of money management into the minds of the children of the family in preparation for smooth and efficient succession (Warde, 2000). However, it is also glaring that if the issues of taxes (inheritance, corporate etc) discussed below are not properly handled, succession within a family business structure may be impossible. In fact, it could prove quite difficult for both the incumbent and the successor because having the appropriate knowledge about the management of inheritance, company, and property taxes are essential for leading a firm into legality and prosperity (Astrachan & Shanker, 2003).

2.3.1  Inheritance Tax Issue

If there are any indications that the proposed successor may not be able to sustain all tax burdens related to the company, it may be impossible for the incumbent, non-member and family members to ratify or approve the choice of such a successor. Although individual workers that work for a company are not expected to pay taxes in Kuwait, but corporation and other taxes related to the operation of a company cannot be avoided: it is punishable criminal action to do so (O’Shea, 1999). 

2.3.2  Financial Requirements

There are some costs necessary for assuming the leadership of a family-owned business-these include the resources needed to offset the financial requirements of heirs to the business and to employ professionals that will help in developing the company (Gersick, 1997). If there is any indication that the successor may not be able to handle these responsibilities, it is may be impossible for him or her to ratified as the successor. Technically, it requires professional employees to man the routine operations of a company and drive it to profitability. But in the absence of all these financial requirements, the family business may be heading to total failure or collapse (De Massis et al., 2008). A potential successor with enviable characteristics and management skill will likely enjoy the support of all parties involved in the succession planning processes. As hinted above, children of business owners in Kuwait are receiving some forms of on-the-training from their parents. Nowadays, parents also send their children to the universities to study business administration in preparation for succeeding them someday (Gersick, 1997).

2.4  Context Factors

It has been discovered that the context of the business may also hinder the succession process. The context includes but not restricted to the prevailing business environment, the political implication and cultural relevance (Ciampa & Watkins, 1999). This explains the observation in Kuwait where religion, culture and politics influence the day-to-day performance of a business (O’Shea, 1999).

2.4.1  Unstable Performance of the Family Business

When a family business does not function as expected, it is likely that this situation will affect transferring its leadership to a successor. Take for instance, a business may become redundant and unprofitable if the demands for its services have been drastically reduced. Previously in Kuwait there was a huge demand for bicycles, but as the economy improves and more Kuwaitis become rich, the business for cars begin to boom, while that of bicycles suffer a little (Ghabra, 1987). This situation may have necessitated that the incumbent has made an attempt to sell off the family business to stave off the losses (Al-Hijji, 2010). And once this action takes place, it will stop the incumbent from relinquishing his or her position to the successor.

2.4.2  Reduction in the Business Scale

When a family business continues to lose so many of its major customers and suppliers its scale of production will be dramatically reduced. In this circumstance, the successor would be unhappy to be given a moribund company to manage. The reason for the loss of customers may be due to the bad management exercised by the incumbent (Dyer & Panicheva Mortensen, 2005). In many cases, it will be difficult for the successor to resolve whatever problem his or her predecessor may have had with the customers. Hence, the successor will decide if it is reasonable to assume the leadership of a company that will be out of business within a short period of time.

2.5  Process Factors

The nature of the procedures adopted in succession process determines if it is going to be successful or not. If all the parties that are involved in succession planning are carried along in the process, they will likely offer their complete support for the process, and the succession will be done quickly and conscientiously: Kuwaitis strongly believe in communal harmony, and people are happy when they are respected and accorded appropriate recognition (Al-Hijji, 2010).

2.5.1  Communication

It is imperative that there must be good communication among all family members, the incumbent, the proposed successor, the non-member and all other parties involved in succession proceedings (Shamah & Rao, 2000). This will help to iron out controversial issues without giving a chance to doubt, distrust, misinterpretation and other disturbing concerns (Ciampa & Watkins, 1999). The incumbent will be happy to introduce the successor into the business, if he or she has no knowledge of such before; the successor does not do anything to undermine the current efforts of the incumbent at the company; both the incumbent and successor have good support from the rest family members, non-members and the customers.

2.5.2  The Due Process

It is unlikely that a succession can occur if both the incumbent and successor refuse to follow the due process required for such a transition to take place (Ciamppa & Watkins). If there are personal grudges between the incumbent and the proposed successor, the due process may not be recognized. The incumbent may decide to lengthen the time required for such a transition to occur and prevent the successor from mounting the position of leadership.

References

Al-Hijji, Yacoub, Y. 2010. Kuwait and the sea: a brief social and economic history. Lancaster: Arabian Publishing Ltd.

Astrachan, J.H., & Shanker, M.C. 2003. Family businesses’ contribution to the US economy: a closer look. Family Business Review, 16 (3): 211-9.

Bjuggreen, P.O., & Sund, L.G. 2001. Strategic decision making in intergenerational successions of small-and medium-sized family-owned businesses. Family Business Review, 14 (1): pp. 11-23.

Ciampa, D., & Watkins, M. 1999. The successor’s dilemma. Harvard Business Review, 77 (6), pp. 161-168.

De Massis, A., Chua, J. & Chrisman, J.J. 2008. Factors preventing intra-family succession. Family Busness Review, 21 (2): pp. 183-199.

Dyer, W.G. Jr. & Panicheva Mortensen, S. 2005. Entrepreneurship and family business in a hostile environment: the case of Lithuania. Family Business Review, 18 (3): pp. 247-59.

Galetic, L. 2002. Characteristics  of family firms management in Croatia. MER Journal for Management and Development, 4 (1): pp. 74-81.

Gallos, Joan, V. 2008. Business leadership: a Jossy-Bass leader. London: John Wiley and Sons.

Gersick, K.E. 1997. Generation to generation: life cycles of the family business. Boston: Harvard Business Press.

Ghabra, Shafeeq, N. 1987. Palestinians in Kuwait: the family and the politics of survival. Jackson (TN): Westview Press.

Goldenberg, Irene & Goldenberg, H. 2007. Family therapy: an overview. Florence (KY): Cengage Learning.

Handler, W. 1990. Succession in family firms: a mutual role adjustment between entrepreneur and next-generation family members. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 15: pp. 37-51.

Hoy, F., & Verser, Verser, T. 1994. Emerging business: emerging field: entrepreneurship and the family firm. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 19 (1): pp. 9-23.

Martin, H.F. 2001. Is family governance an oxymoron? Family Business Review, 14 (2): 91-96.

Morris, H., Williams, W. & Nel, D. 1996. Factors influencing family business succession. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 2 (6): pp. 68-81.

O’Shea, Maria. 1999. Kuwait. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish.

Oxford Business Group. 2009. Report: Kuwait 2008. Oxford: Oxford Business Group.

Parker, Philip M. 2002. Executive report on strategies in Kuwait. San Diego: Icon Group International, Inc.

Sharma, P., & Rao, S. 2000. Successor attributes in Indian and Canadian family firm: A comparative study. Family Business Review, 13, pp. 313-330.

Warde, Ibrahim. 2000. Islamic finance in global economy. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Differences between a manufacturing and a health care services organisation.

At the outset the comparison might sound being akin to the idiom comparing “apples with oranges”, however it is pertinent to note that the management principles applied to any organisation are just as applicable to healthcare organisations as they are to manufacturing.

While there are similarities, there are numerous differences too. The first and the most apparent difference is the output of the two organisation types. Manufacturing organisations turn out semi-finished or finished product(s) that can be used either by the next processing organisation in the supply chain, or by the end user (Kalwani, 1995). Whereas healthcare service organisations tend to serve the end user and deliver services that are useful for either preventive health needs or for alleviating the breakdown of the health of individuals.

In the case of manufacturing organisations the payments for the products purchased is directly made by the purchasing organisation, while in the case of a healthcare organisation it is often made by a third party which can include insurance companies, or varying levels of government  or governmental organs as opposed to the actual end user of the services. Although sometimes end users may indeed pay for such services this tends to be an exception rather than the rule. In other words, whereas a manufacturing organization achieves its primary purpose and generated benefits through the production and selling of the products to a third party, the healthcare organization is primarily a service organization that accomplishes its primary purpose through the production and provision of services. (Daft, 2009, p.267) This is indeed a significant difference.

As stated, among the most predominant differences between the health care and manufacturing business is related to the nature of the products or services that each is associated with. In regard to the health care organizations, the services produced can be characterized as being of an intangible nature rather than a tangible product as is generally the case with the manufacturing companies who produce items as refrigerators, TV’s or clothes. The services of the health care industry are more abstract and consist of ideas and knowledge rather than a physical product. (Daft, 2009, p.267) In other words, the services of the health care industry are not an exact science but tend to vary depending on the unique case of the patient, the doctor’s assessment and other circumstances. There are always certain factors over which the health care industry has little control as any service industry that involves dealing with human nature. This is the basic premise of medical science, in that it is not an exact science. However, in a manufacturing organisation, the processes are well defined and unless any inputs or process parameters are changed, the output is more or less predictable. This makes manufacturing closer to being an exact science, than the ‘science of medicine’ and healthcare (Bell, 1996).

In manufacturing organisations, the process is focused on the production of increasing quantities of goods and typically, volume plays a role in reducing costs. Manufacturing companies have in fact established a system through which acocuntants can estimate the cost associated with a particular manufacturing volume.This is done through collecting information about volume and cost and using a least square method to develop an estimated regression equation relating volume and cost. (Anderson, 2009, p.505). This confirms that manufacturing is indeed an exact science that needs to be very pre-determined to guarantee the success of its products and business. On the other hand, in healthcare organisations, each individual customer is unique and needs to be approached uniquely which excludes the possibility of the presence of a similar determined system. However the inputs that go into providing health and medically related services again meet the volume play (James, Subbarao, & Lanier, 2008).

The inputs for the manufacturing of a particular product would not vary dramatically whereas the inputs for providing health/medical related care services would vary almost with every patient.

Market forces and economic situations dictate manufacturing organisations in general and their profitability is normally linked to the economic well being of the environment in which they operate (Capgemini, 2006, p.3). However, in the case of the consumers of healthcare organisations, people will most likely continue to fall sick and consequently need healthcare services irrespective of what is happening in the economy and in a way; the healthcare services organisations are more or less, well insulated against the variations in the economic environment and general economy (Kalwani, 1995).

Organisational Effectiveness and Efficiency.

The concept of organisational efficiency and effectiveness is a measure rooted in industrial times ([ICMR], 2003). This has led to the abundance of ways through which to measure the effectiveness of an organization in the contemporary world. Rational perspectives place an emphasis on goal attainment and focus on certain variables such as quality, productivity and efficiency. The link between organizational efficiency and effectiveness becomes clear when factors as interpersonal skills, morale and participant satisfaction are also taken into account. (Scott, 2003, p.134, 135). The concept of effectiveness became popular towards the end of twentieth century in America especially in view of the competitive advantage Japanese products had in delivering better value to consumers at a much lower cost. The difference between efficiency and effectiveness within an organization is established through this simple fact.

Despite the fact that these two terms (effective and efficiency) tend to be used as synonyms, they have and imply very different meanings, which are very specific (Angelo Kinicki, 2008). Efficiency is doing things right and effectiveness is doing the right things. It is the degree to which an organization manages to realize its goals. It is a very broad concept that includes several factors. For instance, it takes into consideration a range of variables both at the organizational and departmental level. Organizational effectiveness simply evaluates the extent to which certain goals are obtained whereas efficiency is a narrower concept that relates specifically to the internal workings of an organization. Organizational efficiency is also about the amount of resources used to produce a certain unit. This is why the management industry has become fascinated with continuously finding ways to increase efficiency. If an organization can achieve a certain amount of production with fewer resources than another, this would make the organization in question more efficient and thus more organized and effective in realizing one of the most predominant goals of a business: maximizing profit and minimizing the input. (Daft, 2007, p.70)

In practise, efficiency can be measured through for example the level of employee motivation which includes their respective willingness to do something well, fast and accurately. This could lead to increased quality and productivity within the health care industry. However, assuming that employees remain motivated throughout their career naturally is a mistake in enhancing the organization’s internal efficiency and increasing its long term effectiveness and ability to attain its goals of providing quality care to the patients.(p.33) Herzberg et al proposed that certain motivators (job factors) such as opportunities for achievement, progress, recognition and growth, can enhance the positive working attitude and increase job satisfaction and therefore efficiency. Measuring organizational efficiency and effectiveness in the health care industry can therefore be accomplished through the observation of the quality of input among the employees whose work in this particular type of the service sector is crucial to its success and growth. (The Health Care Manager, 2006, p. 5-6)

Two measures of effectiveness are used within my own health care organization. The effectiveness of a project, program or provision of a service is measured simply by the extent to which it manages to achieve the desired objective. The realization of a certain goal can be attained in several ways which is why  my private health care institution relies on two measures in its analysis in which the most effective approach, among several alternatives, is determined and selected. The measures analyse whether the preferred and selected alternative is capable of producing the maximum amount of performance at the minimum cost possible while second, achieving the maximum level of performance for a certain amount of cost. In other words efficiency and quality should not be traded for benefit. These are the two general measures that my private health care institution bases its analysis on and that Robbins and Barnwell backed up in their Organisational effectiveness and efficiency. Their approach to measurements in increasing organizational effectiveness serves to positively support my organization’s basic but nevertheless all-inclusive approach that combines between efficiency and effectiveness to guarantee the provision of a satisfactory service in a cost-effective way.

Robbins and Barnwell’s thesis is indirectly related to my organization’s measures in improving effectiveness. My private institution focuses on efficiency through tasking the employee’s share in the process in perspective while guaranteeing effectiveness through establishing quality and cost-effective goals that the employee is also responsible for. In other words, my private institution is structured around the notion that the happy worker is the productive worker and essential component in realizing the institution’s aims. Robbins and Barnwell hold on the other hand that better on-the-job performance is what increases job satisfaction and motivation. However, while this definition might not seem directly supportive of  my institution’s it is important to note that both authors recognized the negative aspects of work overload and lack of recognition on the employee’s satisfaction and productivity. Certain factors have to be met by the organization in question to guarantee effectiveness and efficiency among employees. This is affirmed by both authors regardless of their arguments about the more influential role on-the-job performance plays on the motivation level among employees. This simply means that the health sector should guard against overloading its employees. It should make sure that the needs of recognition, responsibility and growth are met and measure effectiveness as directly related to the mistakes or efficiency workers can make. This of course makes only sense. (The Health Care Manager, 2006, p.34)

Organisation, external influences, responses and open system.

The organisation that has been selected for reference in this essay is the third largest for profit healthcare services provider in the world and has over 50 facilities spread across Asia. It has to its credit, the largest hospital under one roof in Asia – over 1200 beds. The organisation was started with the purpose of providing affordable healthcare services of international standards within Asia (Walker, 2006). This was the primary mission when the organisation was setup 25 years ago. Thus far, the organisation and its facilities have met the initial purpose with which they were started, and to-date provides some of best and latest technologies in medical care. Quite a few of the facilities are Joint Commission International [JCI] accredited which itself is a reflection of the standards that are followed within the institution. Some of the JCI audit team members have gone on record saying that they were pleasantly surprised with the level of patient communication and commitment that the healthcare organisation has. JCI has praised several of the methods and processes adopted by the organisation in delivering patient care especially in the area of cardiovascular, stroke and stroke management (Apollo Health, 2010).

Most of the facilities of the organisation are spread across sprawling complexes and large areas of real estate. There are specific entry and exit patterns laid out for each of the category of visitors into the facility – the patients,  customers and their visitors, emergency and trauma care, ambulances, service providers and finally employees of the facility with excellent and well demarcated parking facilities. Typically, the structures are multilevel with modern elevators and occupant movement facilities. The intensive care areas are well isolated yet accessible and separate HVAC systems are provided. Extensive facility support systems and equipment provided with air-conditioning using latest air-filtration technologies and a variety of electrical back-up generation facilities.

Indeed, the importance of allied health and organizational structure to facilitating the outcomes of the institution have been recognized by several researchers discussed in the readings of Module 2. Organizational theorists and practitioners are interested in both the elements of organizational structure as well as the components that influence and determine that design. These include predominantly size, technology, environment and strategy. My organization has a different structure to a smaller sized one due to the larger number of employees, patients and services provided. The division of labour is conducted through more elaborate coordinating mechanisms manifested in the standardization of work processes and outputs to coordinate work activities. These attempts at coordination create a hierarchical efficient structure and lead therefore to more formalization and effectiveness. My institution is internally more centralized due its size in order for information and decisions to be processed more effectively. Organizational structure plays a dominant role in the management of any enterprise including a health care facility. Structure is thus a theoretical concept whose understanding and proper application can generate benefits in terms of increased efficiency and effectiveness within the institution. (p.76, 77)

There are a number of external factors that influence the functioning and profitability of the organisation. One of the major influencing factors that are important among them is the introduction of various initiatives of the government in the social health sector. The government can set the quality standards of the health care sector through for example supporting the establishment of clinical data reporting requirements and providing rewards to those institutions who manage to achieve higher levels of quality. (Institute of Medicine, 2003, p.1) It is vital to understand this in the Asian context where most of the health services are paid for by the individual and the concept of health insurance is relatively new phenomena and still in its infancy within the Asian continent. This makes the well being of citizens a main government concern. Locally various levels of government have brought in legislation towards meeting this concern. Another important external influencing factor is the general economic conditions. This is important for the organisation as approximately 12% of its annual turnover is generated from the executive/employee health-checks or medical screening programs that it conducts. In case of an economic downturn this tends to make the organisation vulnerable. The third major influencing factor is emerging competition.

The organisation at the corporate level has its own methods and approach to the above external influencing factors (most of which are beyond the scope of this essay).

The first and the most important influencing factor surround government legislation. Universal healthcare is after all a broad concept that has been implemented in different ways in Asia. Governmental legislation, regulation and taxation is a common approach through which health care is implemented in order to provide access to as many people as possible while setting minimum standards of provision. For example, New Zealand uses general tax revenues to finance its system. (Devlin, 2001) The organisation has realised that after the government’s recent introduction of free healthcare to certain segments of society this resulted in a sudden surge in demand. This is over and above the patients that come with a full payment structure or private medical insurance. This created high utilisation and low cash realisation to the organisation at the cost of extremely high levels of sophistication.

To handle this challenge and change in situation the organisation has dedicated one facility in a major city to be accessed by only government subsidised/referred patients while self paying customers or those with private medical coverage are declined service provision at this facility and are directed to other facilities within the healthcare organisation group. This clearly demarcates what is being provided free and what is being provided for full payment. This became essential as the government-funded patients’ nutritional requirements (meals) were/are not subsidised, and consequently had to pay to be served meals by the hospital nutrition service. Under existing policies of the hospital outside food is not allowed to be bought in for consumption by hospitalized patients. (Asia Pacific Management Forum) This created a dilemma for the hospital concerned as some patients who could afford food were served it, while other patient’s who could not, went without. This was becoming difficult to manage and bordered on discrimination. To avoid this and other related issues the organisation decided to separate facilities for different user categories.

A second contributing external influencing factor is the overall domestic economic situation. Approximately 12% of the turnover of the hospital comes from executive health checks that are primarily financed either by individuals themselves or by employers. In situations of economic downturn where there is an extreme squeeze on liquidity for individuals, the general tendency is to avoid periodic health checks if things appear to be working fine. (???reference???) Secondly, organisations tend to cut down on costs that are not imminently required. This has a serious impact on the organisation’s overall business. To tackle this situation, the organisation has hired a public relations agency that has a single point agenda of promoting preventive health care and highlighting the importance of continued health checks as a cost saving measure for organisations, as they tend to save on absenteeism and other indirect employee costs.

Healthcare is an emerging industry in Asia and many corporate facilities are emerging on a monthly basis that is challenging the organisations market position and market share. To handle this situation the organisation has adopted a twin pronged approach (Rouse, 2008). On one side the organisation has embarked on an aggressive publicity and marketing drive to deepen its hold on the Asian market. Meanwhile the senior management & board decided to invest in the latest technologies and education of employees on leading to improved methods of providing care. These two strategies when combined, the organisation hopes, will pave way for more industry leadership and increased market share.

Systems Type: The organisation can be described as being more of a closed system than an open system. This is because of over a period of almost three decades the methods of working and delivery have been framed and are expected to be ‘religiously’ adhered to, notwithstanding that several of the senior management/board positions are held by family members.

Even in face of extreme changes of the external influencing factors, very rigid systems exist to ensure that such changes are taken on record and are deliberated over long periods by various management structures and committees within the healthcare organisation as a whole, which eventually filter to the organisations executive board. The deliberations are conducted in extremely stringent conditions, and ultimately, decisions are extremely centralised and are limited to very few individuals within the organisations senior management structure. This makes the response to external stimuli very restrictive (Heil, 2010).

Such an approach of being a closed system is a great disadvantage to the organisation as the response to external environmental stimuli is very limited and often too lengthy that allows more agile competitors to indulge in very fluid tactics against the organisation, to which the healthcare organisation is slow to respond (Heil, 2010).

References

(ICMR), I. C. (2003). Introduction to Organizational Behaviour. Hyderabad: ICFAI Center for Management Research (ICMR).

Angelo Kinicki, R. K. (2008). Organizaitional Behavior, 3rd edition. Arizona State Univeristy.

Apollo Health City. (2010). About Us. Retrieved April 09, 2010, from Apollo Health City: http://www.apollohealthcity.com

Bell, W. F. (1996). Organizational Development – Behavioral Science Interventions for Organizational Improvement (5th Ed). New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.

Chopra, S. (1992). SCM – Strategy, Planning and Controls for Manufacturing & Services. McGraw Hill.

Dickman, R. (1997). Medical testing: Issues and ethics. Forum for Applied Research and Public Policy .

Frederiksen, L. W. (1982). Handbook of Organizational Behavioural Management. New York: Interscience – Wiley.

Heil, K. (2010). Encyclopaedia of Management: Open and Closed systems. Retrieved 12           April    2010 from http://www.enotes.com/management-encyclopedia/open-closed-   systems

James, J.J., Subbarao, I. & Lanier, W.L. (2008). Improving the Art and Science of Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness. Mayo Clinic Proceedings (pp. 559-562). Proquest.

J.C. Anderson, J. N. (1990). A Model of Distributor Firm and Manufacturer Firm Working Partnerships. Journal of Marketing , 42-58.

Kalwani, N. N. (1995). Long-Term Manufacturer-Supplier Relationships. Journal of Marketng, Vol: 59 , 1-16.

Prasad, D. H. (2009, November 29). Dealing with Cancer – more than just medicine. (D. K. B, Interviewer)

Rouse, W. B. (2008). Health Care as a Complex Adaptive System: Implications for Design and Management. National Academy of Engineering of the National Academies , 1-5.

Walker, D. M. (2006). Non-profit, For Profit and Government Hospitals – Uncompensated Care and Other Community Benefits. Committee on Ways and Means, House of Representatives. United States Government Accountability Office.

The Study of Health Services Organizations is Relevant to Nursing Profession Practice

Health services organizations are extremely sensitive organizations whose services are indeed essential to guarantee social order and stability within any society. It is interesting to note that despite the importance of the health care industry in the lives of all people, most individuals do not desire going to the hospital. There is a sense of fear from this institution, a fear linked to the ideas of sickness and pain associated with being a patient. This is the general human mentality. However, regardless of how much one might resent the concept of the hospital, most people find themselves forced to pay this place a visit at least a few times throughout their lives. Health care providers are however not the same even if generally grouped together as a consequence of their common similarity: taking care of the patient. Health Service Organizations are financial and managerial organizations whose inner structure needs to be effective and efficient to provide the patient with the required and expected level of quality care. The study of the diverse facets of Health Service Organizations, including for example employees satisfaction, financial management and organizational structure, is essential to the enhancement of this crucial social sector. This idea is especially understood well when the segments of the Health Service sector are taken into perspective. This includes for example the nursing profession whose effectiveness, well-being and advancement is closely tied to the general assessment and study of the functioning of Health Service Organizations.

Certain generalizations can be made regarding the health service providers. As with any business, health service providers can be classified into two broad categories: non-profit and profit oriented institutions. The difference between these two types of institutions is indeed significant and very important in understanding the kind of hierarchical structure to be found within any kind of health care organization that belongs to either type. Profit oriented organizations function with a sole purpose of generating higher profits for the stake holders, while not for profit organizations function with the sole purpose of effectively delivering services. However, whatever the primary motive of the organization the fundamental effort is same – to stretch every dollar that enters the organization. In the case of non-profit institutions it is nevertheless very important for the organization to stretch every dollar while providing the best possible quality of service at all times. The focus is thus above all on the service and the patient rather than the profit.

Nursing care is very important within the provision of health care services to patients in hospitals. This is very simple to understand. Patients can reach a doctor directly if the problem was the simple need for an assessment. However, nursing care is what drives patients to enter a hospital on a 24 hour basis. The attention patients receive from this type of health care professionals is an integral part of the healing process which highlights the need to dwell further about the different aspects of health service organizations for the proper assessment of the most effective methods through which to improve the nursing sector.

What is however interesting to observe is the fact that despite the importance of the care nursing personnel provide to patients they are nevertheless not incorporated within the organizational hierarchy of the health service organization. The reasons for the obstruction in their status within the health care industry at large are indeed varied. For example, one of the reasons why nursing personnel’s growth is limited is related to the absence or decreased understanding of the broad organizational and management principles within health service organizations. The study of this facet of this particular service industry could thus lead to the improvement of the nursing sector. Hence it becomes important for a nursing professional to learn, understand and practice larger management and organizational theories for personal growth. This is also important for the growth of the organization. It is important for everyone in the organization to understand larger organizational perspectives and priorities to be able to effectively deliver the services required while staying within the financial budget of the organization. The accomplishment of this goal would serve to transform the organization into an effective and efficient entity.

The nature of healthcare organizations is very different from any other organization. This is directly related to its delivery of a type of services that play a direct role in the lives of the patients. In addition to this, a typical healthcare services organization is reliant on human labor forces regardless of how automated or technologically advanced it might be. It is indeed very easy to allow a machine to conduct human work. However, this would be impossible in the health care generally and the nursing care specifically. Take the example of the dressing of a wound. Any nurse can perform this task which requires not only knowledge but also attentiveness and sensitivity regarding the patient. A nurse professional is able to combine between these requirements whereas a machine can simply not. Therefore, it is complicated to trust technology with taking fully over human work. The key to advancement lies then in the specialization and sophistication of the profession itself through research and analysis of the components necessary for the enhancement of the health care services that nurses provide. In short, the nature of the health care services organizations is based on its reliance on humans.

In addition to its foundation on the basis of human intensive labor, health service organizations are also characterized by their dependence on expertise for success. Indeed, expertise is simply equitable to professionalism, efficiency and effectiveness within this service industry. Expertise is highly valued and promoted through for example long term internships in the nursing care. Expertise is also limited again to a few individuals which makes these individuals highly desirable. However, regardless of how experienced and knowledgeable a doctor or nurse might be, he is still reliant on technology to be able to make an accurate diagnosis. Technology and expertise are woven together within the health service industry to provide efficient care to patients which makes their study and promotion on a continuous basis very important. This is also where the manufacturing and health service industry’s roads cross.

Time is of the essence in the health care industry. While a few seconds do not make a great difference in the manufacturing business it could be the difference between life and death for a patient. Taking this aspect into consideration it is hence important to rely on efficient technology to make the most accurate assessments and offer the best treatment in the shortest amount possible as a health care professional. Again in a health care services organization, human skills form an important part in deciding the positioning of different resources at different locations. For example a nurse who has no experience in certain bedside procedures cannot be charged with taking care of an intensive care unit. She needs to be first adequately trained, tested and only then be posted. Similarly a ICU nurse cannot be posted in a non ICU situation, this will be a drain and waste of resources.  So even the case of the simple postings of duties, which is more a mundane personnel department task, becomes a complicated issue that demands an understanding of skill inventory of each individual (Keerti, 2006). Again in the same situation the nursing positions are typically varied in nature with more than one supervisor and peer relationship for each nurse on duty. A typical nurse on duty is expected to be an effective assistant and report in a timely and accurate manner to the duty doctors, visiting specialists and surgeons, the floor coordinators and the nursing superintendent. A nurse professional is also expected to maintain excellent working relationships with the pharmacy and stores personnel.

All the above cited challenges and more call for a formal understanding of human resource structures and dimensions,. This only underlines again the importance and need for the comprehensive study of organizations relevant to the improvement of the work of a nursing professional.

Organizational efficiency and effectiveness has been an issue that most managers have attempted to comprehend fully in order to maximize the material benefit without risking the quality of the services provided. Efficiency can be simply defined as doing things right while effectiveness can be understood as the conduct of the right things. For instance it is very efficient to be able to use generic paracetamol with patients. Since it is a generic medicine, the cost is less and hence more efficient. But effectiveness is answering the question if paracetamol is the right drug for a patient. In a healthcare services provider scenario it may be necessary at times to sacrifice efficiency to be effective. The patient’s needs have to be addressed as his condition is part of the treatment procedure. Taking all these factors into account the question of effectiveness and efficiency within the health care sector becomes even more complicated. The stress is also great for a health care professional because not being effective or efficient enough could mean the loss of a life or at the least, its damage through physical impairment. The services offered by professionals, by nurses, have to be effective. This is not open to question or negotiation. How to carry this task out is nevertheless open to further debate and analysis in addition to research.

The nursing professionals world over use the concept of a nursing pathway while delivering services to patients. Thereby, they and have their specific sets of practice while dealing with patients to be able to deliver their services effectively. These are specific SoPs (standard operating procedures) that are used in every given situation (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections, 2009). These SoPs are formulated over the course of years of practice and improvisation and finally become standardized in an institution / organization. SoPs are designed to be effective as well as efficient.

It is vital to study the principles of a healthcare services provider organization to be able to understand specific issues that are unique to these institutions. For instance the mix of hierarchical and matrix structures and the grasp of human skill inventory is critical. Now understanding the wider HRM principles and appreciating the uniqueness of the healthcare services organization becomes important for a nursing professional to be able to effectively deliver patient care services without sacrificing organizational priorities and the human needs of the colleagues.

Another very important area of cost management is the availability of material at hand. This can be achieved through the maintenance of adequate stocks in the central store for the delivery of services for a nursing professional (Christopher, (1997)). For instance sterile wet swabs are necessary in volumes on a daily basis for a nursing professional. Different syringes are required which means that different medications are required in the stock. This  suggests that a nursing professional needs to appreciate and understand the fundamental principles of inventory management and supply chain to be able to effectively stock while not increasing the inventory cost and at the same time not risking stock outs. Providing a course for nursing personnel that addresses these concepts could go a long way in increasing efficiency of conduct and therefore organizational effectiveness.

While the work of a nursing professional seems to be isolated and totally insulated from the external environment, it is important for a nursing professional to actually understand and appreciate both the external and internal environments to be able to work effectively and deliver the best of care to the patients while protecting the interests of the organization (Department of Health and Human Services’ Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation , 2003).

It is thus relevant to conclude from the aforementioned that the nursing professionals are impacted by external political, economic, social, technological and legal environments and the developments therein. The changes in organizational policies, SoPs, decisions, structures as well as the alterations in the management serve all to impact the nursing professional.

External political influences may play a very limited role in the nursing practice, but have however a direct impact on the practice itself. For instance a legislative restriction on the nature of practice impacts the nurses directly. To illustrate this further, let’s dwell on another example. If it is decided that, in view of the acute nursing shortage, it is appropriate to have nursing schools that have shorter training cycles instead of the generic 4 year degree program this is likely to have a large impact leading to a huge sudden surge in the supply of the nursing professionals who are legally allowed to practice but professionally less competent and therefore less efficient. While this might seem farfetched, it is an example of how political and legislative controls can affect a nursing professional.

It is important from an organizational view-point as well as a personal view point that a nursing professional remains updated about the technological improvisations in his field. For instance there might be new invented medicines that bring about improved and more effective results.  Remaining up to date through for example courses is thus important for a nursing professional. There might be newer instruments that can make the nurses’ life easier. It is thus vital that a typical nursing professional is schooled on a continuous basis throughout his career as the medical field is a changing field.

As an organization progresses in time, it learns from its own experiences and keeps modifying the principles and policies that it applies. For instance an organization might decide to change the work timings because of certain external developments. The work timing is an internal factor totally internal to the organization. A nursing professional is expected to keep to the new timings and adhere to the changed organizational policies at all times.

All these changes and developments in the external and internal environments of a health care service provider has a direct impact on the nursing professionals which means that the nursing professionals are not at all insulated from such developments. It is very important for a nursing professional to be cognizant of such developments and adhere and adapt to the changed environments to be able to survive and grow in the profession. This is why research related to health organizations influences the work of nursing professionals.

Bibliography

Christopher, M. a. ((1997)). Managing Logistics in Fashion Markets. International Journal of Logistics Management , 8 (2, p. 63 – 74).

Department of Health and Human Services’ Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation . (2003). The Future Supply of Long-Term Care Workers in relation to The Aging Baby Boom Generation. Washington: Department of Health and Human Services.

Keerti, B. D. (2006, October 24). Head Training, Apollo Health City. (Rajyalakshmi, Interviewer)

Moore, D. (1992). Human Watching.

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections. (2009, December 17). Social and uman Service Assistants. Retrieved January 17, 2010, from United States Department of Labor: http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos059.htm