It is part of the objectives of the American government to support Iraq in establishing a democratic government. They have military civil affairs in Iraq helping the local sheiks and leaders on how they could set up their local democratic government after long years of dictatorship. The civil affairs worked with the local sheiks in forming a local government in the area. Apparently, they had difficulties in finding representation in certain areas other than security forces. In Jazeera, they are giving more emphasis on reconstruction projects to stir the economic growth. Furthermore, the American civil affairs are also teaching the locals of the region on how they will face living in the transition from dictatorship to a functioning democratic system (Munson, 2010)). Part of civil affair’s responsibility is to serve their diplomats in the area in doing every support they have for the local sheiks. The affairs are also serving Iraq as advisers for the democratic process. Overall, they found out that many of the local sheiks are interested to learn about the democratic system and adapt it eventually. In the transition, the civil affairs presented to the local leaders of the region about the importance of having transparency in the government. They are working to educate the people about democracy, and during the process most of the civil affairs have to write all about it and they have to stick to the standards. During the early stage, the civil affairs focused on the Jazeera Council who will handle most of the reconstruction project in the area. It is the Jazeera Council who will control the funds for reconstruction. In this stage, the civil affairs also have to teach everything to the council including on how to account the money. Many scholars believed that the transition to democracy in Iraq will take time; although, the American coalition show willingness to do and finish their work before leaving Iraq.

The hostility between the minority Sunni and majority Shiite (Everest, 2010). Many scholars believed that there is no valid comparison between the American Revolution and with the overthrow of Hussein regime in Iraq. In the American Revolution, they took several years of struggles before obtaining their parity with the mother country. During the American Revolution, the Americans have to cover relatively small colonies against the powerful empires in the world which is Great Britain. The Americans fought against the objective of Great Britain to retain autocratic control over the affairs in American colonies. The revolution took place during the era of new ideas and enlightenment regarding liberty and equality. The only synergy between the overthrow of Hussein regime in Iraq and the American Revolution is the kind of government which they are trying to develop in Iraq. There are claims that in examining democratization, America model is not the only model considering that its process was not indigenous to the Iraqi people. It is known that Israel has democracy; however, the American government has structured form of government including their election system. In the overthrow of Hussein regime, anti Saddam Iraqis faced several challenges due to Furthermore, the sectarian and ethnic diversity in Iraq contributed to make it more difficult for democratization. on the other hand, during the American Revolution, large Anglo colonials rebelled against the British crown; however, they don’t have any difficulty involving diversity and they don’t have to cope with the same power that have arisen in Iraq. Finally, in the overthrow of Hussein regime there is no peace proposition promising that the poor and illiberal democracies will still be surrounded by autocratic countries. Unlike the American Revolution, they had the leading figures on Enlightenment ideology. It shows that until now Sunnis and Shiites are still hostile to one another.

According to Greek philosopher Aristotle, democracy is not the best form of government after he compared it with other forms of ruling such as monarchy and oligarchy. Aristotle emphasized that democracy is for and by the people who is far different from monarchy wherein the ruler has he interest of his country (Hummel, 2010). For Aristotle, true form of government should have rulers that are leisured and propertied in order for them to invest their time in producing virtue. Aristotle believed that the best practicable state is the one which virtue has the best of influence wherein the political functions should be assigned to the few rich and other functions to the many poor, to produce a balance of the classes. Aristotle believed that it wasn’t right for the government to disrespect the citizens and it wasn’t right for the government to seize a land from citizen. However, in eighteenth century the things started hopping when the Europeans started making waves with some revolutionary ideas. During the Age of Enlightenment, there are philosophers who went around encouraging people to seek alternatives against the oppressive government. After the Revolution War, the Americans chose democracy and they don’t give favor to monarchy knowing that its form of government is comprised of hereditary rulers who share the same bloodline. The Americans after the Revolution believed that they fought for independence in the first place was to free themselves from government structures that don’t have consent for the people. They prefer the democratic form of government which the people hold the power to rule themselves. The founding fathers of democracy believed that at some point America will become a big nation and by the time it happens, there will be no way they could possibly get everyone together to vote and agree on every single thing.

It is argued that the American government is supporting to bolster the protection of unborn life. It shows that the effort of government is not sufficient without a legal support and it is inadequate to secure legal protection of life. Pro-life movement claimed that jailing women who get abortions is not a fair representation of their argument. They believed that the general body politic is willing to have abortion restricted by human law, but not prohibited. At one time, pro-life movement taught that the Constitution should be interpreted in light of the unalienable right to life which was stated in the Declaration of Independence (Paul, 2010). Right now, the movement is trying to call upon the Congress to propose an amendment to the Constitution to eliminate any doubt that unborn child possess life legally and scientifically. The church has strategically chosen to take incremental steps to conform human to God. Pro-life movement believed that human life should be valued from implantation until its natural death. On the other hand, there are pro-life that are not exclusively associated with Christian morality. Mainly, their viewpoint is that any destruction of human life is considered morally and ethically wrong and it is not mitigated by any benefits. Furthermore, there are pro-life advocates that are against the introduction of birth control especially the hormonal contraception and copper IUD that prevent the implantation of embryo. For them, pregnancy begins at fertilization and certain forms of contraceptives work like abortifacients. Even the Catholics endorse that hormonal contraception has effect to fertilization. Apparently, the position of pro-life movement is not exclusively connected to religious beliefs regarding the sanctity of life. Most of the opinions in the issue of abortion is being reflected on religious groups. The Church opposes abortion and they are after the safeguarding of life and the well being of the pregnant woman.

Generally, a welfare state is a government that provides for the welfare of its citizen. In the process, the government is involved in the lives of the people particularly in providing their physical and social needs. The main objective of the government in welfare state is to assure the equitable standards to its people and create economic equality. In welfare state, the government has important role in providing housing, education, sustenance, healthcare, other goods and services to its citizen (Mitchell, 2010). On the other hand, some nations don’t really have true welfare states considering that goods and services are only given to certain people who meet eligibility requirements. Overall, a welfare state is socialist in nature redistributing the wealth and taxing the middle and upper class to provide goods and services. In terms of the general welfare clause of the US Constitution, the government has the right to collect taxes to pay the debt and provide defense and general welfare of the Americans. In the Constitution, the power of the Congress was specified including their powers in regulating commerce between states. Based on the tax regulations, the government will be considered to be operated exclusively for social welfare purposes such as bringing civic betterments and social improvements. However, there are claims that the promotion of social welfare is carrying business with the general public and they are almost similar to other organizations that are operated for profit. Overall, social welfare should be understood as the well being of the people as community. It shows that general welfare clause holds no power outside of specific items government to control and regulate. It must always remember that the Constitution was written for the government, and the general welfare refers to government itself and not of individual citizens.

In the United States, gender roles are seen as dynamic and they considered it as a product of cultural contexts in which men and women are socialized. They believed that gender roles are based on attitudes and cultural beliefs of the people that change within the historical frames (Anselmi, 2010). In the United States, the role of women undergone significant transformation wherein most women nowadays assumed the roles and behaviors traditionally viewed as for men. The meshing of gender roles predominates in Western countries especially the industrialized area. They believed that gender role orientations has great link with the behavior of the people and can be reflected in athletic participation and alcohol consumption. In the past decades, the Americans have made strides in adjusting and accepting the new definition of gender roles. Based on the Bureau of Labor Statistics, women make up almost 50 percent of the total workplace. It shows that the presence of women in the workplace including their behaviors and attitudes had change. United States government are now requiring the companies to come up with policies that are family friendly to cater women workers such as by implementing flexi time, job sharing, and on-site child care policies. The government is also concerned with the issues involving sexual harassment, and they feel that companies need to be cautious in dealing with it. In the last generation, the United States is dealing with revising its traditional gender roles knowing that there have been significant changes in gender roles affecting the workplace, school, and home affecting the American population.

Generally, affirmative action on racial policies refers to programs that are providing advantages for people of a minority group seen to have been discriminated in terms of their access to employment, education, social welfare, and healthcare. Affirmative action promotes employment equity requiring the institutions to increase their hiring of mandated groups. In some areas, they introduced the use of racial quotas to avoid discrimination during the hiring or application process (Crawford, 2010). Indeed, affirmative actions on racial policy require institutions of being race-blind and act against discrimination. They ensure equal opportunity and encouraging ethnic minority to join even in their police force. In my opinion, affirmative action on racial policy should be implemented knowing that the United States is composed of a diverse community. Through affirmative actions, there will equal distribution of education, jobs, and wealth. It is proper to support the affirmative action on racial policy considering that many of the minorities are underrepresented. It is only through affirmative action on racial policy that the Americans can correct the history of discrimination against minority group.

World War II was the most violent armed conflicts in the history that continues to absorb the interest of military historians. World War II teach the Americans not only about the profession of arms, but also to military preparedness, global strategy, and operations in the coalition of war. The United States carried out its mission in defending the continental United States including other overseas possessions like in the Philippines. They launched limited preparedness campaign and they drafter series of war plans to deal with the threatening international situation (Davis, 2010). The focus of the Americans during World War II was on military policy. Unlike the participation of the United States on Global War on terror, they give greater emphasis on antiterrorism legislation that could significantly expand the police powers. Global war on terror requires the US government a wide range of actions and policies including the establishment and vast expansion of surveillance systems. This time, the United States forfeited its reputation as icon of justice and democracy, even among its closest allies. Scholars believed that the United States undermined it moral authority by having flouted the accepted rules or war.

9. Economic internationalism encompasses the quality and condition in order for the country to be international in the aspect of principles, character, attitude and concern. It is also considered as a belief in cooperation which is between the nations but for the purpose of achieving the common good (Thoma, 2010). One of the dimensions in economic internationalism is its classical theory wherein the assumptions are being regarded as the nations of community. Thus, the nations are interacting by means of trade. The nation can be described as individual but of economic and rational entity; economic internationalism is the economics of community but it is a community that a government may not even rule. This means the economy of the world is classified as national community. Furthermore, this dimension is underpinning such free trade with the assumption that there should be no international migration and investment.

10. The current debate on migration policy is the fact that it can bring higher economic benefits for the purpose of receiving the families, immigrants and at the same time the society. As previously studied, though migration policy is well-managed, organized and legal, the economy is still well affected due to increasing number of migrants in the country, particularly the United States. There are many migrants who are willing to work abroad and adapt the lifestyle of the country, because of their dreams that most of them can escape their hard lives in their own countries (Perez, 2010). But since, most migrants are willing to work with lower pay in order to survive and live in their chosen country; the citizens of that country cannot find any jobs because of rising competition from migrants.

Reference

Anselmi. Gender Roles. Retrieved August 2, 2010, from:

http://family.jrank.org/pages/686/Gender-Gender-Roles-Stereotypes.html

Crawford. Affirmative Action on Racial Policy. Retrieved August 2, 2010, from:

http://www.debatingracialpreference.org/PREFACE.htm

Davis, Todd. Global War on Terror. Retrieved August 2, 2010, from:

http://www.globalwaronterror.net/index.htm

Everest, Larry. New US War on Iraq. Retrieved August 2, 2010, from:

http://rwor.org/a/v23/1140-1147/1140/iraq.htm

Hummel, Charles. Aristotle. Retrieved August 2, 2010, from:

http://www.ibe.unesco.org/publications/ThinkersPdf/aristote.pdf.

Mitchell. Welfare State. Retrieved August 2, 2010, from:

http://www2.rgu.ac.uk/publicpolicy/introduction/wstate.htm

Munson. Iraqi in Transition Potomac. Books Publisher, 2009, pp 142-160.

Paul, Ron. Prolife Politics. Retrieved August 2, 2010, from:

http://www.lewrockwell.com/paul/paul240.html

Perez. Impact of Immigrants. Retrieved August 2, 2010, from:

http://www.migrationpolicy.org/

Thoma, Mark. Healthy Globalization. Retrieved August 2, 2010, from:

http://economistsview.typepad.com/economistsview/2008/05/a-strategy-to-p.html

Genus Clupea

Fishes of genus Clupea, which are classified as C. pallasi (Pacific herring) or C. harengus (Atlantic herring), are basal marine teleosts known for their less stringent requirements to reproduce. Members of C. pallasi are commonly found along the eastern coast of Bering Sea and northeast Pacific ocean (Williams and Quinn, 2000). This has lead to a variety of populations living at different conditions. Variations in living conditions among their habitats eventually lead to differences in migration cycles, age structure, growth rate, and age of maturation among populations (Semenova, et al., 2009). Because of its market value, it has been a subject of many researches originally focused on describing their adaptation mechanisms and finding means to manage their population. These initial efforts resulted to a well-defined wide range of spawning season and specific spawning locations. Gradually, studies using members of Clupea as animal model have lead to researches about epigenetics and development, physiology, and evolution (Geffen, 2009).

Role of molecular biology in ecology

Study of molecular biology of Clupea, or other animal groups, is important in population maintenance. Since its conceptualization, the use of molecular markers has gradually overtaken the role of morphology in assessing differences among populations, because morphological traits overlap between populations. For example, Atlantic and Pacific herring were differentiated based on the number of vertebrates. The multivertebrate Atlantic herring has, on an average, 57 vertebrae, while the oligovertebrate Pacific herring has 53. However, this character proves to be unreliable in population studies because the ranges of the number of vertebrates in Atlantic and Pacific herrings considerably overlap: 51-60 vertebrae for Atlantic herrings and 47-57 vertebrae for Pacific herrings (Semenova, et al., 2009).

Landscape genetics

Inferring specific environmental factors that may have caused the persisting genetic structures and their differences among populations, or predicting future genetic structures of populations based on current environmental pressures can be done through landscape genetics (Jorgensen, et al., 2005). Landscape genetics works on the presumption that genetic drift, is a reflection of habitat reduction and fragmentation, because such conditions hamper the continuity of flow of adaptive genes (Jorgensen, et al., 2005). Genetic drift is a natural evolutionary process in which a population’s allele frequencies change. The effects of genetic drift are much more magnified when the population size becomes drastically reduced. The resulting population may not represent the original population’s gene pool, may overrepresent alleles, and may subsequently not contain in them other alleles (Campbell and Reece, 2002). So how can a sudden reduction in population size and subsequent reduction in genetic monotony be prevented? By allowing migration to seek refuge and/or subsequent interpopulation interactions to allow adaptive genes to be passed on. Indeed, the genetic make-up among populations reflects the interplay of genetic drift and gene flow (Jorgensen, et al., 2005). The set of genes that allows evolutionary success changes from time to time, depending on the present environmental conditions. The variety in one’s genetic structure increases the possibility that it contains the genes encoding for proteins or mRNA that allow survival in the persisting conditions. In fishes, genetic differentiation among populations of the same species can be expected if they have (1) large spawning population sizes without considerable genetic drift, (2) freedom to migrate, (3) highly dispersive migratory life stages to increase the gene flow (Jorgensen, et al., 2005). On the contrary, isolated populations tend to reduce their genetic variability and their ability to adapt to environmental changes because they are not exposed to other populations that may have a genetic make-up different from theirs. Thus, adaptive genes, and an increased possibility of having them, are important factors ensuring survival because it allows resilience against disturbances (Piorski et al., 2008).

Genetics are also important in establishing intraspecific variations within a species, which are usually designated by morphological similarities or interbreeding ability. For such purposes, use of molecular markers is inevitable because members of a species usually look the same in terms of their morphological character (Chinain and Germain, 1997).

Molecular markers for landscape genetics

In determining genetic variations among populations of Clupea, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) -1* and LDH-2* are two of the four polymorphous loci determined to be most informative. For example, C. harengus and C. pallasi can be differentiated just by LDH loci. Using LDH-1* locus, LDH-1* 100 allele can only be found in C. harengus, while LDH-1* 200 is only found in C. pallasi (Semenova, et al., 2009).

Just like any other scientific techniques, use of genetic markers has its drawbacks. First, compared to proteins, DNA are much harder to extract. The genetic material, especially of eukaryotes, is packed tightly with histones to fit into the nucleus. On the other hand, enzymes, such as LDH, for example, are just in the cytoplasm. In addition, the ratio of gene: protein in any cell is definitely much lower than its reciprocal. You can thus get lower amounts of gene than protein from a certain volume of tissue homogenate. Second, the DNA sequence should have already been more or less established. This is necessary in producing primers, which attach to the DNA at its complementary site. Primers will then allow selective DNA replication through PCR, or to present substrates for nucleases to cleave desired potions of the DNA. Because of these, other molecular markers have already been explored for use in population genetics.

Isoenzymatic markers

Aside from genetic markers, one of the molecular makers through which fish population is studied is through isoenzymatic markers because members of the same species can be different biochemically (Chinain and Germain, 1997). In addition, differences in proteins are reflection of differences in genes encoding them. Isoenzymes are molecular modifications of an enzyme resulting from the presence of multiple genes coding for the enzyme. This multiple genes are a result of substitution and insertion/deletion mutations in the DNA (Piorski et al., 2008).

Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH): function and structure

LDH is a NAD-dependent tetramer protein responsible for lactic acid fermentation, regulating pyruvate and lactate interconversions through redox reactions during hyper- and hypoxic conditions (Gronczewska, et al., 2003; Meany, 2007). After glycolysis, pyruvate is processed depending on the availability of oxygen. Table 1 summarizes the metabolic pathways at different oxygen concentrations. At physiological oxygen levels, pyruvate enter the mitochondria continues into Krebs cycle, after which energy is processed through an electron transport chain that utilizes oxygen in one of its steps. At hypoxic conditions, pyruvate cannot enter the Krebs cycle. Energy production is thus depended solely on glycolysis, when glucose is converted into pyruvate. What happens next is that LDH, with reducing agent as NADH, reduces pyruvate to lactate. It is not an energy-producing process, but this is necessary to continue reproducing NAD+ that is involved in glycolysis. Accumulation of lactate is harmful, as can be attested by the muscle pain humans feel after prolonged exercise that utilized lactic acid fermentation, because it can be converted to lactic acid, which affects physiological pH and causes lactic acidosis. In addition, aerobic respiration is much more efficient than glycolysis paired with lactic acid fermentation. Thus, when normal oxygen levels are restored, LDH catalyzes the oxidation of lactate by NAD+ to make pyruvate available again for metabolism (Campbell and Reece, 2002; Meany; 2007 Zietara, et al., 2009).

LDH in Clupea

LDH exists in different anatomical structures of Clupea. In spermatozoa, its main role is to reoxidize NADH and to subsequently speed up glycolysis. Lactate metabolism and NADH reoxidation will then power sperm motility even at low levels of oxygen (Gronczewska, et al., 2003). In Clupea harengus, LDH is present in skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and semen. The enzyme’s three isoforms have been identified as B4, A2B2, and A4. Cardiomyocytes contain all three isoforms (Gronczewska, et al., 2003), while in their spermatozoa, only B4 and A2B2 LDH isoforms can be isolated, although not as much as found in the heart. (Zietara, et al., 2009; Gronczewska, et al., 2003). The skeletal muscle has the least varied LDH, with A4 as the only type of LDH found in this tissue. It may be inferred that A4 is specific for myocytes, although it is not the main LDH isoform in cardiac muscles (Figure 1).

Isoenzyme electrophoresis

Isozyme electrophoresis is a useful technique in establishing population variations. This was first used in diatoms, and soon after applied on macroalgae, dinoflagellates (Chinain and Germain, 1997). Two electrophoresis techniques are used for the study of LDH. To screen for the presence of LDH in tissue homogenates, horizontal starch gel electrophoresis is performed. Zietara and Skorkowsi (1993) has identified 14% starch gel ran at 27 mA for 4 hours as the optimal conditions at which LDH electrophoresis should be performed. An LDH-specific stain composed of 30 mM Na-lactate, 0.25 mM NAD+, 0.1 mg/ml p-nitro blue tetrazolium chloride and 0.1 mg/ml phenasine methosulfate in 0.1 M Tris-HCl buffer, pH 8.0 is being used to incubate the gel. Once purified, the LDH-containing sample is run through polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and the gel is stained with Coomassie Brilliant Blue R-250 to determine its amount and to confirm differences among samples, if present, that were initially observed during starch gel electrophoresis (Gronczewska, et al., 2003).

It is the aim of this study to determine and elucidate differences among herring populations in terms of (1) LDH isoforms and (2) how their LDH respond to changes in temperature. Most studies and findings have been elucidating the effects of temperature on metabolism. Because the maximum amount of dissolved oxygen depends on how hot or how cold the water is, water temperature is a telling factor whether or not metabolism undergoes an aerobic route. When water temperature is high, water molecules have higher kinetic energy. This subsequently lessens the amount of intermolecular spaces which oxygen molecules can fill. When conditions are changed from normoxic to hypoxic conditions, it was found that metabolism gears toward the production of lactate at a much faster rate when the temperature is at 20°C, than when it is at 5°C. In addition, fishes at 20°C seem to be much more responsive to lowering oxygen levels than at the lower temperature (Li, 2008). Although these changes in metabolism may be traced to changes in LDH, it is possible that other factors contributed to increased lactate production at high temperatures and hypoxic conditions. For example, the fish, as one of its mechanisms, has undergone decreased activity to conserve energy and prevent unnecessary ATP production through lactic acid fermentation. It is thus interesting to find out whether or not changes in LDH really lead to changes in metabolic activity among populations of herring.

References

Campbell, NA and Reece, JB 2002, Biology, Fourth edition, Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco.

Chinain, M and Germain, M 1997, ‘Intraspecific variation in the dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus (Dinophyceae). I. Isozyme analysis’  Journal of Phycology, 33, 36-43.

Geffen, AJ 2009, ‘Advances in herring biology: from simple to complex, coping with plasticity and adaptability’ ICES Journal of Marine Science, 66, 1-8.

Gronczewska, J, Zietara, MS, Biegniewska, A, and Skorkowski, EF 2003, ‘Enzyme activities in fish spermatozoa with focus on lactate dehydrogenase isoenzymes from herring Clupea harengus‘ Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 134B, 399-406.

Gronczewska, J, Biegniewska, A, Zietara, MS, and Skorkowski, EF 2004, ‘Inhibition by tributyltin of herring skeletal muscle lactate dehydrogenase activity’ Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 137C, 307-311.

Jorgensen, HBH, Hansen, MM, Bekkevold, D, Ruzzante, DE, and Loeschcke, V 2005, ‘Marine landscapes and population genetic structure of herring (Clupea harengus L.) in the Baltic Sea’ unpublished

Li, VB 2008, ‘Physiological and behavioural responses of Largemouth Bass yearlings (Micropterus salmoides) to hypoxia at summer and winter temperatures,’ MSc. Thesis, Queen’s University

Meany, JE 2007, ‘Lactate dehydrogenase catalysis: Roles of keto, hydrated, and enol pyruvate’ Journal of Chemical Education, 84(9), 1520-1523.

Piorski, NM, Sanches, A, Carvalho-Costa, LF, Hatanaka, T, Carrillo-Avila, M, Freitas, PD, and Galetti Jr., PM 2008, ‘Contribution of conservation genetics in assessing neotropical freshwater fish diversity’ Brazilian Journal of Biology, 68(4, suppl.), 1039-1050.

Semenova, AV, Andreeva, AP, Karpov, AK, and Novikov, GG 2009, ‘An analysis of allozyme variation in Herring Clupea pallasi from the White and Barents Seas’ Journal of Ichthyology, 49(4), 313-330.

Williams, EH and Quinn II, TJ 2000, ‘Pacific herring, Clupea pallasi, recruitment in the Bering Sea and northeast Pacific ocean, II: relationships to environmental variables and implications to forecasting’ Fisheries Oceanpgraphy, 9(4), 300-315.

Zietara, MS, Biegniewska, A, Rurangwa, E, Scwierczynski, J, Ollevier, F, and Skorkowski, EF 2009, ‘Bioenergetics of fish spermatozoa during seme storage’ Fish Physiol Biochem, 35, 607-614.

The basic reason behind William Shakespeare starting to write Tragedy stories is due to the reason that he felt that the various other tragic plots that were being used by other English writers of his time lacked imaginative foundation and composition. The most important focus of all of Shakespeare’s tragedies was the fall of a prominent person of his story. Additional attractions of his plays used to be Suspense and climax. His effort was amazing as it was not of the customary for the time of his existence. Anybody with just very little knowledge about the writings of Shakespeare would be familiar with one of the tragedies as a Shakespearean work.

The four most outstanding and renowned tragedies that were written by William Shakespeare are King Lear, Hamlet, Othello, and Macbeth.  The word ‘tragedy’ and its derivation are considered to be uncertain even today. “The word has been said to be derived from two Greek words - tragos (goat) and oide (song) (RSC - Royal Shakespeare Company). ” All of the tragic works written by William Shakespeare have a upsetting primary actor, or ‘protagonist’ who is in due course put into a absurdity or incompatible situation that is likely to be solved by the same character -  the hero.  A mixture of bad luck and misjudgment in due course results in the bereavement of the hero of the play.

Othello - as already mentioned above is one of the four outstanding tragic works of William Shakespeare that was written by him in the year 1602.  This famous tragedy of Shakespeare predominantly focuses on the death of Othello, the protagonist and all other important characters of the play as a result of jealousy.  All of the actions of the characters of the play are motivated by this single aspect of jealousy and hence the same is very prominent in the play.  Iago and Othello are the two main characters that portray Jealousy in the play Othello.  Jealousy is the one that completely corrupts Iago and consequently makes him to display his actuality.  This in turn causes Othello to go through an utter transformation in his own self and thereby leads to the destruction of all of his friends’ lives.

It has been said that catastrophe decontaminates the fondness and warmth by panic and sympathy. That is, it replaces imaginary compassion for sheer egoism and self-centeredness. It offers a soaring and enduring interest, beyond one’s self, in kindness as such. Tragedy is believed to raise the immense, the inaccessible and the potential to fairness with the genuine, the modest and the proximity.  Tragedy is also believed to suppress and mitigate the perseverance of the will power of a man.  Even though Iago has a repute of being “full of love and honesty” (III, iii, 138), he is the one who is accountable for obliterating many lives and is viewed as an individual who “perhaps one of the most villainous characters in all literature” (Godfrey).  Iago’s jealous is pretty evident as early as in the start of the play itself.  Specifically, in Act I of the play, Iago sets the tenor for the irrational effect jealously has on the characters of the play. Although Iago is not very sure that Othello is culpable of cuckolding him, his distrust “Will do as if for surety (1.3.371)” (Curtis).  It is, nevertheless, Othello’s intense jealous behavior that encompasses a central theme of the play. Othello is center of supremacy, and his behavior and implement of free will has the most insightful effect on everybody. Iago, who is considered as the master manipulator, uses Othello’s authoritative diffidence and jealousy as a means to instantaneously change Othello’s discernment of Desdemona.

Othello- an outstanding tragic piece of William Shakespeare is one of a kind tragedy that enlivens one’s compassion and consideration in astonishing manner.  The ethical aspects that Othello conveys have a closer relevance to the apprehensions of human life than that of any other works written by Shakespeare. If the other tragedies of Shakespeare are observed, each one of them portrays and conveys different aspects of morality.  The themes in King Lear and Macbeth contrast in the way that the pathos as portrayed in the play Lear are more dominant and are actually not so natural, however, they lack the consideration and compassion as observed in Macbeth.  In the same way Hamlet is more secluded and impulse.  In the same way, if Othello is observed it is more thoughtful, philosophical and heartwarming.

Interestingly, the term ‘Jealous’ apparently is appeared for about 21 times in the entire play of Othello.  Specifically, it becomes a common term that is used in the dialogues of Othello, Desdemona, Iago, Casio and Emilia.  Furthermore, Emilia and Iago are the two characters who have a pivotal role in this tragic play and they seemed to have apparently used the term of ‘jealousy’ almost seven times individually.   All through the play, Othello has been portrayed as an extremely strong character and he seems to be very proud of every single action of him. The control is not only of authority but of the sagacity of him being an excellent soldier.  In Act I, Othello has a brawl with Brabantio, who actually comes to kill him, but even before he attempts to attack Othello, Othello said, “Hold your hands, both of you of my inclining and the rest.  Were it my cue to fight, I should have known it without a prompter” (I, ii, lines 80-3) (Field of Themes).” The power displayed in this scene by Othello is quite amazing.

The crucial struggle that the character of Othello faces in the play is trying to recognize the truth to believe in. Othello’s own self sympathy and qualms of others allows Iago to even make Othello rethink and doubt the truth told by his wife. “This struggle within himself shows the weakness of Othello. It shows how his own doubts and questions of how is view allowed for evil and deception to easily overrun his mind. The actor must understand that this is not because Othello is slow or easily influenced, but rather partly worn and broken by his isolation from his own town. Iago is able to awaken these feelings of rejection and confusion that feed the feelings of evil and betrayal. By this it is how Othello grows able to murder his own wife. His mind is clouded and overwhelmed with years of feelings building up until the seal is broken by a wise and malevolent plot (Ross).”

The power and command over any situation that Othello has is one his strongest distinctiveness.  All through the entire first act, it can be observed that Othello is portrayed as a man with extensive power and an innate leadership. However, it would be difficult for anybody to believe such a man change all of a sudden (Field of Themes).  This change in Othello is evident from the scene when Lodovico notices Othello hitting Desdemona. As already mentioned above, the most significant of all the various themes of this play are the risks of love transforming into jealousy and the consequences of one getting his revenge.  The results of these themes are that a man trusts another man rather than his own wife, and that four persons are killed and two marriages damaged totally.  This play clearly portrays how letting emotion rule the body and mind instead of rational thought doing the same can eventually result in destruction. While most of the people may not believe that their individual actions can have such massive repercussions, as rightly said, the path to hell is paved with noble intentions. “Shakespeare intends to warn people of the dangers of acting without thought; to bring people aware of who is around them and what ulterior motives they may have when you take their counsel; and to show that every small move you make impacts the world around you to no end (Griffin).”

Othello continued to be very famous right through the 18th and 19th centuries, and numerous of the most radiant actors of that time sought after the role of the Moor, as Othello was called by many Venetians.  Othello, undoubtedly, is a most famous and one of the best tragedies written by Shakespeare. It is actually about love that transforms to be bad as a result of jealousy.  Shakespeare builds an influential drama of a marriage that originates with attraction amid the unusual Moor Othello and a fair Venetian lady named Desdemona, with elopement, and with strong mutual loyalty and that eventually ends impulsively with jealousy, anger and brutal deaths.

Works Cited

Curtis, Jerry. Jealousy: A Major Theme of Shakespeare’s ‘Othello’. 2009. 14 December 2009 <http://www.helium.com/items/100575-jealousy-a-major-theme-in-shakespeares-othello>.

Field of Themes. Character Analysis. 02 November 2009 <http://www.field-of-themes.com/shakespeare/essays/Eothello3.htm>.

Godfrey, D. R. Analysis of Shakespeare’s Othello. n.d.

Griffin, Alice. Themes in Shakespeare’s Othello. 03 July 2009. 14 December 2009 <http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/1902208/themes_in_shakespeares_othello.html>.

Ross, Jake. Analysis of Othello. 2009. 02 November 2009 <http://ezinearticles.com/?Analysis-of-Othello&id=148684>.

RSC - Royal Shakespeare Company. Macbeth. 02 June 2009 <http://www.rsc.org.uk/macbeth/tragedy/tragedies.html>.

Abstract

Some of the common eating disorders in women are anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. There are theories that have been put across to clarify the development of these disorders. One of the theories is that of childhood sex abuse the relationship between sexual abuse and the development of eating disorders has been an area of attention in the last couple of years. Researchers have tried to make a clarification of this potential connection using a wide range of population samples and research methods. The results of these methods have also varied and almost inconclusive. Many research designs have been functionally applied by different researchers but the results of their research have been dogged by methodology problems.  This paper will look at some of the research designs that have been used to try to explain the connection between these two variables.

Introduction

The relationship between sexual abuse and the development of eating disorders has been an area of attention in the last couple of years. Researchers have tried to make a clarification of this potential connection using a wide range of population samples and research methods (Finkelor, 1979). The results of these methods have also varied and almost inconclusive. Many research designs have been applied by different researchers but the results of their research have been dogged by methodology problems. In most cases, women who were sexually abused when they were young tend to have emotional problems and they tend to exhibit some behaviors that are aimed at fighting back at the perpetrator of the act or as a way of managing the problem. This research is very important because it can help in the psychological treatment of the eating disorders using the cognitive behavioral therapy method, should it be conclusively established that there is an overt relationship between the eating disorders and childhood sexual abuse. This is because cognitive behavioral therapy is the best method of treating any cognitive behavior that may be exhibited in a human being. But is it is not conclusively found out that there is a relationship between childhood sex abuse and eating disorders like bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa, then application of cognitive behavioral therapy to treat the eating disorders may be misguided. In the literature review below the complicated connection between sexual abuse and eating disorders will be examined at the same time discussing the methodological defects of the various research designs used. The paper will end with a conclusive critique of the whole research exercise and give a way forward.

Review of Literature

Anorexic Samples

Steiger and Zanko compared the levels of incestuous abuses and extra familiar abuses among women with eating disorders who met the DSMR-111 criteria, women with psychiatric disorders and normal women (Garner & Garfinkel, 2009). The researchers were interested in the psychological effects of maltreatment and this interest led them to examine psychological defenses which are known to filter effects and perceptions. These differences were vital to the researchers because victims of incest usually have maladaptive defenses which have a self victimizing quality where if they angry with others, the resort to act that are self sabotaging. Secondly women with eating disorders usually use defenses that are primitive as compared to psychiatrically disturbed ones or the normal ones. This study was designed in order to make a determination of how traumas like sex based abuse might have effects on the development of the defense styles. So as to compare the rates between the disorders subtypes the women were divided into various groups. These groups are the anorexic restricters, anorexic bingers, bulimic anorexics and bulimics without anorexia. To make this comparison a group of 20 women was formed within the age range of 18-25. There was a normal control group of 24 women from diverse backgrounds who were of the same age range with the women who had eating disorders. A defense style questionnaire was used to make an assessment of the defense styles and in order to make a study of the sexual schemata, a self report questionnaire was used where the respondents indicated the following information about their sexual abuse during their childhood and adolescence: The perpetrator, the victim, frequency of the sexual abuse, the nature of the sexual abuse and the age at which the sexual abuse took place. The researchers also administered an eating attitudes test in order to establish the existence of eating disorders amongst the subjects used as a control (Garner et al, 1983). The researchers noted that 30 percent of the women with eating disorders reported sexual abuse, however; this trauma was prevalent among those bulimics with no recounting of anorexia. It was found that the condition was infrequent among the anorexic restrictors. Moreover, the subjects showed prevalence of effects of sexual trauma between the restrictors and the bulimics. In making the conclusion, the researchers said that sexual abuse and incest should not always be viewed as variables that cause the development of sexual disorders, because they can also be markers of developmental features, family histories, or any other pathogenic effects.

Bulimic Samples

Welch and Fairburn made a study of the connection linking sexual abuse and the development of bulimia nervosa. There were three main objectives in the study. The first objective was to make a determination of whether sexual ill-treatment leads to an increase of the risks of the development of bulimia nervosa and the researchers used 40 subjects who had bulimia nervosa and 80 normal subjects for comparison. The other objective of the study was to determine whether there was any risk increase identified that is particularly related to bulimia. Nervosa or whether there was a reflection of an increased risk of general psychiatric disorders. This was achieved by examining the 40 subjects anguishing from bulimia nervosa and 40 others with different psychiatric disorders. The third objective was to determine whether patients with bulimia nervosa had a difference with a community group as far as the history of sexual abuses was concerned. This was carried out by examining 50 community subjects who had bulimia nervosa and 50 clinical cases of the same condition.

After the research, the researchers found out that a very minor proportion of the subjects had a history of sexual abuse and they also found out that such a history was just as usual as in the group with the psychiatric disorders generally which means that sexual abuse cannot be considered as a particular risk factor that can lead to the development of bulimia nervosa. The other study used 700 bulimic women to determine whether there is a considerable involvement between bulimia and sexual abuses during childhood. A relationship between family environments was also studied and this study used the questionnaire method. A series of chi square and one way analysis were conducted and the researchers found out that bulimia with self reports of significant childhood abuse, sexually and the seriousness of the abuse was directly proportional to the severity of the bulimia. The contribution of the family environment was also noted where the family variables had an additive combination that increased the risk of bulimia. However, the researchers said that other factors still came into play like personality type, biological dispensation and other contextual factors because 38 percent of the women who had no childhood sexual abuse also displayed bulimic symptoms.

Psychiatric Inpatient Samples

The third group of researchers attempted to examine the connection between eating pathology and any form of abuse. They looked at the nature of this connection using a clinical sample population. In their hypothesis, they stated that patients with sexual abuse histories often show high levels of severe pathological eating disorders as compared to the women who did not suffer from nay type of sexual abuse. The study involved 140 psychiatric women patients, 90 of whom had a history of sexual abuse while 50 did not have such a history. The sample population was given self report questionnaires that had items that were behaviorally defined with a description of sexual abuse and an inventory of eating disorders. The researcher’s findings suggest that there is a relationship between general patterns of symptoms that are linked to sexual disorders (Welch and Fairburn, 1994).

Those patients with a history of childhood sexual abuse scored highly in this study as compared to the other group. However the subjects who had histories of childhood sexual disorders and were not diagnosed with any eating disorder still had some features bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa. This research shows that there is a very close association between sexual abuse and eating pathology and the patients with a history of childhood sexual abuse are bound to exhibit a higher level of eating pathology than the patients who did not suffer from childhood sexual abuse.

Student Samples

Student’s samples are also very important in the determination of the relationship between childhood sex abuse and the growth of eating disorders though this sample population ahs some limitations. The fourth research group used a sample of 150 female undergraduates in order to make a determination of a potential link between childhood sex abuse and eating disorders especially the onset of bulimia nervosa. It also investigated the role of family environment in the development of bulimia. The hypotheses that this group put across was that teenagers diagnosed as bulimics would report a higher rate of childhood sexual abuse than the ones that were not diagnosed with bulimia. To each of the participating subject, the following research protocol was provided: Subjects family background, sexual life events questionnaire, Dissociative experiences scale, childhood mealtime questionnaire and the bulimics investigatory test. The hypothesis of the researchers had tentative support form the bulimic group because it reported higher incidences of sexual abuse with a close relative or a family member after they were 12 years old and also reported more cases of sexual abuse with an adult before they were 12. The researchers say that high sexual abuse rates among the bulimics explains why they tend to have negative perception of their bodies (Henderson &Freeman, 1997).

The bulimics who reported sexual abuse, according to the research tend to significantly dissociate more that the bulimic women who had not been abused meaning that the binge purge cycles may create emotional numbness and psychological dissociation. As it was found in all the previous studies, it was not all bulimics that were found to have a history of sexual abuse. There were non bulimics who reported sexual abuse and some other bulimics who did not experience childhood sexual abuse. This means that there may be other factors that are operating outside the sexual abuse experience that lead to eating disorder development. The cases of bulimia would be more aggravated in women who have experienced both sexual abuse and other events that cause food disorders. The researchers also conducted another study suing the same sample population where it was revealed that any unwanted sexual experience would lead to a higher score on a scale measuring eating disorders. Dieting and bulimia were found to be connected to sexual experiences that used force especially where a close family member was involved. The researchers concluded that dieting or self starvation was a defenses mechanism, a way of gaining control over the family member with whom the sexual experience occurred, while bulimia may occur in situations where a person outside the family was involved. This is because the victim is not in a position to gain control over this perpetrator. Once again this fourth research has shown that sexual abuse has a high probability of triggering sexual disorders.

Incest Samples

The fifth research was carried out by wonderlich who used 40 women who were involved in an incest treatment program to make an exanimation of his hypothesis that victims of childhood sexual abuse show greater levels of eating disorders than the control subjects. The control subjects were 29 in number (Hastings &Kahn, 1994). The researcher had predicted that the victims of childhood stress disorders would have some other behaviors that reduce tension like substance abuse and the magnitude of the emotional reaction is directly related to the developing of eating disorders. This means that victims of childhood sex abuse often engage in dangerous self destructive behaviors aimed at minimizing the emotional stress that comes our of the abuse. They also found out that this bulimic behavior was related to the development of the symptoms of post traumatic stress disorder suggesting that bingeing, dieting and purging are some of the efforts that are employed by childhood sexual; abuse victims to manage their sensitive emotional; state that is usually imbalanced by memories of the abuse. The eating disturbances are related to reactions that are affective because of the travails of the abuse. The conclusion is that bulimic behaviors are purposely meant to create affective regulation and not reactions to thought of the abuse and memories of the ordeal.

Methods and Methodological Problems

Most of the studies aforementioned have succeeded in finding a connection between eating disorders and sexual abuse. The research designs used in the studies above present some methodological problems. One of the methodological problems is the size of the sample populations because may be somewhat different results on the negative or positive would have been gotten if the samples were large secondly the samples varied in their backgrounds, ranging form college students to psychiatric patients and this hinders making of generalizations in research because it is b\not known whether these problems are unique to those groups. The other problem is  lack of standard definitions of eating disorders and sex abuse which may affect the validity and the reliability of the research.  The studies did not use the same criteria for making the determination of whether eating disorders are cause by sex abuse meaning that it was difficult to make a conclusion using results got across different studies (Calam & Slade, 1989). The gathering of the retrospective information also posed a big problem because there was a potential bias in recall. This means that the individuals are more often than not, selective in the amount of information they are willing to give out especially things that happened in the past especially if the memory of those things hurts. The questionnaires used had also not been well validated and, measured to determine their reliability and validity. The questionnaires may also create a potential data bias.

Finally, the causal relationship between the histories of childhood sex abuse and the eating disorder development cannot be effectively determined though this kind of data gathered. This is because there is a serious lack of attention given to the timing of the abuse and the growth of the bulimia and anorexia nervosa and nothing is pout across to determine whether there were symptoms of eating disorders that existed before the sexual abuse (Benstein&Putnam, 1986). These researches conducted do not also pay attention to other potential factors such as the family environment that may lead to the development of the eating disorders. There are other victims of sexual; abuses that do not develop eating disorders meaning that the relationship between these two variables is very complex. All these research and methodological base problems act as a hindrance towards the understanding of the impact of sexual abuse on the development of eating disorders.

Conclusion

In all the research aforementioned that has been trying to analyze the relationship between eating disorders and sexual abuse, the data overwhelmingly suggests that there is a relationship between bulimia nervosa and sexual abuse. However, the data does not indicate that there is a relationship between sexual abuse and anorexia nervosa. Moreover, this relationship between childhood sex abuse and bulimia only exist \in some forms and not others meaning that a causal relationship is yet to be established. It is very possible that any traumatic happening has the potential of developing an n eating disorder given that sexual abuse occurs in environments that may engender such a development (Bond et al, 1983). The relationship between eating disorders and childhood abuse is not overt and it cannot be conclusively be said that the cause of eating disorders in women is childhood sex abuse because there are  those who experienced abuse and do not exhibit symptoms of eating disorders and others that have eating disorders and yet there were not sexually abuse while young. This means that there is more to eating disorders than just sexual abuse.

Future research ought to analyze the effects of the adjacent environment like family on the development of such disorders. This is because there are other traumas in the environment that may aggravate the eating disorders. These include physical and mental abuse. It is until some of the methodological shortcomings are mentioned above are resolved in the research designs of the future that the relationship between eating disorders and childhood sexual abuse will be established otherwise it would be fallacious to say that there is an overt relationship between the two variables. Despite all the reports of the above research designs, the connection between childhood sexual abuse and bulimia nervosa remains a mystery.

Statistical interpretations of the results

The Correlation between Child Sexual Abuse/Incest and Eating Disorders.

The independent variable: Child sexual abuse/no child sexual abuse.

The dependent variable: Eating Disorders.

The number of categories in my independent variable or my continuous independent variables are as follows: In the eating disorder dependent variable category; Anorexia Nervosa (Restricting) with a given value of 1.00, Anorexia Nervosa (Purging) with a given value of 2.00, Bulimia Nervosa with a given value of 3.00, ED (NOS) with a given value of 4.00, Obesity with a given value of 5.00 and no eating disorder reported with a given value of 6.00.  In the sexual abuse independent variable category child sexual abuse with a given value of 1.00, sexual assault with a given value of 2.00, attempted child sexual abuse with a given value of 3.00 and no sexual abuse reported with a given value of 4.00.

The statistics that I plan to run on my data would be the Correlate Spearman Rho as my categories don’t completely fall within those defined by Pearson are simply because both distributions are highly skewed.

The data output in comparing Eating Disorders with Sexual abuse using the Spearman Rho is as follows:

Nonparametric Correlations

Discussion of results
Most researchers have found out that just a small proportion of the subjects had a history of sexual abuse as they also found out that such a history was just as normal as in the group having psychiatric disorders thus considered as an independent variable. This shows that sexual abuse cannot be taken as a risk factor that can effectively lead to bulimia nervosa development thus a correlation coefficient of 3 which shows very minimal significance.

Students samples used in the determination of the relationship between growth of eating disorders and childhood sex abuse had some shortcomings and more so during the start of bulimia nervosa. The hypotheses that was forwarded was that teenagers diagnosed as bulimics would report a higher rate of childhood sexual abuse than the ones that were not diagnosed with bulimia thus non significant correlation.

The researchers were able to conclude that dieting or self starvation was a defense mechanism, a way of gaining control over the family member with whom the sexual experience occurred, while bulimia may occur in situations where an individual who is not part of the family member may get involved as the victim may not be in a situation to gain control over the perpetrator. The research based on Pearson’s correlation coefficient shows a value of 1 meaning that sexual abuse has a very high chance of bringing about eating disorders.

The research carried out by Wonderlich using women who were involved in an incest treatment program showed greater levels of eating disorders than the control subjects. As earlier predicted the victims of childhood stress disorders would engage in some behaviors in order to reduce tension such as substance abuse and the extent of the emotional reaction has a direct relation to eating disorders development thus potentiating a correlation coefficient of 3. This then shows that victims of childhood sex abuse most of the time engages in weird self destructive behaviors that are geared towards lowering the emotional stress.

The findings which show that this kind of bulimic behavior was significantly related to the emergence of the symptoms of post traumatic stress disorder hence suggesting that dieting and purging are amongst the efforts employed by childhood sexual and victims of abuse to effectively manage their emotional; state that is usually imbalanced by memories of the abuse. The eating disturbances owed some relation to eventual reactions as a result of the abuse.

The attempt by some researchers to examine the link between any existing form of abuse and eating pathology by looking at the nature of the connection using a clinical sample population. The hypothesis stated that most patients with histories of sexual abuse do exhibit elevated levels of extreme pathological eating disorders as compared to the women who did not suffer from any type of sexual abuse.

In relation to a study where the sample population was given self report questionnaires containing items with behavioral definition and description of sexual abuse with an inventory of eating disorders. The findings suggest that there is a relationship between symptoms that are associated with sexual disorders thus a correlation coefficient of 1. It shows that there is a very close association between sexual abuse and eating pathology and most individuals with a history of childhood sexual abuse are most likely to exhibit higher levels of eating disorders than individuals who were not victims of the same in childhood.

The statistical data showed a lot of similarity with the correlation significance thus the findings reflects true picture of the relationship between Child Sexual abuse, incest and eating disorders. However the results can not be conclusive because of human errors as some respondents can not reveal the truth.

References

Bernstein, E.M., & Putnam, F.W. (1986). Development, reliability, and validity of a

dissociation scale. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 174, 727-735.

Bond, M., Gardner, S.T., Christian, J., & Sigal, J.J. (1983). Empirical study of self-rated

defense styles. Archives of General Psychiatry, 40, 333-338.

Calam, R.M., & Slade, P.D. (1989). Sexual Experience and Eating Problems in Female

Undergraduates. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 8, 391-397.

Finkelhor, D. (1979). Sexually victimized children. New York: Macmillan.

Garner, D.M., & Garfinkel, P.E. (2009). The Eating Attitudes Test: An index of the

symptoms of anorexia nervosa. Psychological Medicine, 9, 273-279.

Garner, D.M., Garfinkel, P.E., & Shaughnessy, M. (2005). The validity of the

distinction between bulimia with and without anorexia nervosa. American Journal of

Psychiatry, 142, 581-587.

Garner, D.M., Olmstead, M.A., & Polivy, J. (1993). Development and validation of a

multidimensional eating disorder inventory for anorexia nervosa and bulimia.

International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2, 15-34.

Hastings, T., & Kern, J.M. (1994). Relationshipd Berween Bulimia, Childhood Sexual

Abuse and Family Environment. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 15, 103-111.

Henderson, M., & Freeman, C.P.L. (1997). A self-rating scale for bulimia: The “BITE.”

British Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 18-24. .

Welch, S.L., & Fairburn, C.G. (1994). Sexual Abuse and Bulimia Nervosa: Three

Integrated case control comparisons. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 402-407.

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Once I accomplished my undergraduate degree, I established a full time career with the geriatric population.  Presently, I implement occupational skills with my clients through long care facilities.  I  thoroughly enjoy this field and have been with them for thirteen years.

When it comes to the elderly, The AOTA vision can be a beneficial aspect.  The vision is there to enhance the element’s of one’s life once a specific age is attained.  The goal is to make sure the elderly are comfortable and able to perform activities around their own community.  In addition, it helps clients receive home based services; therefore, being able to remain in their own home.  A second aspect of the vision, is a common knowledge to help my clients with referrals.  On occasions,  clients will need home alterations to assist with daily living.  I will be able to use this section of the vision to refer my clients to social workers, nurses, home builders, and physicians.

I am also acquainted with the reputation your school holds.  After several conversations with past graduates and present professors, I feel we are a perfect match.  I feel that I am a very dedicated student.  My grades and studies are of the utmost importance, thus being on the Dean’s list for two years.  It is my desire that you will consider me for the MSOT program and allow me to continue my education at your school.

My goals for the graduate program are to learn how to be prepared to work in any OT environment.  For example, if my career changes from geriatric to pediatric, I want to have the skills for this change.  I want my services to benefit all my clients.  I also want to acquire the strength to provide a better service to my patients.  In addition, I have a spirited personality to assist my clients with meeting their own goals.  I will take every aspect learned from your program and apply it in my career environment.

Overall, I feel this program will help me exceed as an individual and therapist.  If I have an improved comprehension with my OT skills, then my clients will have a better understanding of their services as well

ABSTRACT

The sensibility of touch in the human hand is one of the most important elements that make it possible for the hand to function well. Without the said existence of sensibility, the capability of the hand to hold, to touch or to do anything is lost; in short the hand becomes useless. There are actually two-point focus considerations when the idea of finger sensibility stimulation is placed into discussion. The understanding pertains to the thought that a person’s hand is composed of several activated points that are able to identify the stimulating points that allow immediate sending of message to the human brain making it easier for the brain to respond and push the hand and fingers to work towards what is required. These two-point focuses allows the skin to discriminate the stimulants and send out a message to the brain which the brain decrypts in an essence that would be meaningful to turn into a command that would be used to push the hand to respond. For a fact, around the body, there are actually different points of sensibility, meaning there are several parts where skin stimulation occurs. However, for the discussion that follows, as noted above, a concentration on the two point discrimination found in the hands and fingers shall be presented. Understanding how it practically affects the occurrence of touch sensibility and how important it is for the sake of developmental understanding in the field of science and medical technology shall be better investigated within the context of this research.

Chapter 1: Introduction

Background of the Study

The human hand is one of the most functional parts of the human body. It is quite unimaginable for a normal person to live freely without the perfect capability of the hand to function fully for the sake of the response to the need of the body to work or to move. This is specifically seen among those people who have less control of their hand function. But what makes the hand work as much as it does? The sensory receptors that the hand processes are like electric connections that link the feeling indicators of the hand, most likely the fingers, towards the brain which practically interprets the sense that the fingers receive. It could not be denied that it is through this particular process that the finger is able to adapt properly towards its responsibility and its expected role in the human body as it functions to respond to the stimulation of the brain’s command for it to act towards the said motivation of work.

This idealism towards the existence of stimulant receptors in the human body corresponds with the essentiality of the role that the skin pertains to. It could not be denied that within the skin that stretches through the entire body, the skin in the hands could be noted to be the most responsive part as it is the one responsible for noting the feel of the different things so as to allow humans to function well. As for a fact, within a day, an average human individual at least uses his hand for the 89% of his total physical activities. It could not be denied that this fact mirrors the idea that somehow, the consideration placed upon the existence of stimulation and receptor density within the skin around the hand and finger accounts so much for the elevation of the consideration on the message reception considered when it comes to the relay of hand function as per suggested from the brain towards the hand and the fingers as per expected.

Within the conditional presentation of research that is to be discussed herein, an evidential assumption on how the process of touch sensibility in the hand affects the function that it responses to as per demanded by the human brain shall be shown through the use of efficient references that are noted for their validity and comprehensive effective approach in discussing the topic considered herein.

Statement of the Problem

As mentioned within the prelude of this discussion, the issue to be given attention to within this research pertains to the role of touch stimulation perceived through the two point discrimination in the hand and fingers that basically outlines their capability to respond to the “call” or to the “message” sent from the brain for them to work with what is required. The “feel” or the message taken from the stimulation used through the application of the sense of touch is the particular source of competent reception that presents a source of message towards the connection that directly manifests the function existing between that of the brain and the hand-and-fingers which suggests immediate response to “touch stimulation”.  The understanding of the function of touch sensibility and receptor process existing within the two point discrimination identity of the hand and the fingers practically intend to make this research directly applicable when it comes to the creation of possible solutions to problems occurring in connection with the function of the hand and finger. As particular guide to the problem response to be hosted within this research, the questions that follow shall further define the path of the study:

What is meant by touch sensibility and how does it actually affect the function of the hand?

How do sense receptors impose on the functionality of the hand and the fingers as connected to the explanation of the two-point discrimination?

What particular elements of touch sensibility and stimulant receptors actually affect the proper functions of the hands and the fingers and how do these elements help in the process of finding the consistent procedures by which issues of functionality could actually be defined and resolved?

Significance of the Issue

The functionality of the human hand depends on the capability of the fingers to properly move and receive proper stimulation from the utilization of touch sensibility. Through the recognition of the two point discrimination, this function could be better identified, thus pushing for the more effective understanding of what finger function is all about and how important it is for the human individual. Likely, it could not be denied that the most important part of this study is providing proper understanding on how the finger functions thus creating more comprehensive ways of responding to several issues of hand and finger injuries that require sensory stimulation to re-enhance the functionality of the said part of the human body.

Benefits of the Study

The list that follows better present the essential benefits that this study intends to provide to the stakeholders of the research:

Establishing proper understanding of the role of the two-point discrimination in identifying the proper functioning system of the hand and the fingers

Being able to identify the role of touch sensibility in finding the most considerable approach used to identify the functionality of the hands and fingers

Noting the efficient explanation capable of providing the most considerable support to finding effective solutions to problems involving sensory issues causing malfunction in hands and fingers.

Objectives of the Study

To make a definite explanation of what two-point discrimination in the hand and fingers is all about.

To consider the importance of two-point discrimination in identifying functionality of the hands and fingers and practically making a good indication on how this functionality could be better enhanced on the cases of those who are having dysfunctional medical issues when it comes to their hands and their fingers.

Methodology

Based on an experimental approach, this study shall try to investigate on the matters that have already been proven by the past researchers of the same field. It could be observed that somehow, the experiment is expected to provide a better essence of the truth that defines the role of touch sensibility and the connection that it has with the two-point discrimination in the hands and the fingers. With the results from the participants who are to be asked to take part in the experiment, an understanding of the actual effects of sensory detection through the two-point discrimination theory that explains that stimulation of sensation found in the hands and the fingers.

Research Structure

The introductory part as noted in this section is basically considered as part of the research that considers that primary presentation of what the research is going to be about. This section practically gives a good overview to the readers of what the study is practically focused upon. In the later part of the research (chapter 2) shall give a good presentation of the evidential collection of the research materials that basically define the exceptional understanding of what two-point discrimination is all about and how it directly affects hand and finger functions, it is expected that through this section, a brief introduction of what is supposed to be expected of the experimentation that is to be handled in the research shall be better given view. These evidences shall be given actual proof through the next section [chapter three]; the methodology section. Through this, the explanation of the procedures taken into consideration for the response towards the statement of the problems insisted within the introductory section of the research. The fourth chapter shall be the results and analysis section which gives the proper understanding of what the results of the methods applied actually insists in connection with the issue being investigated upon. Towards the end of the research’s presentation, the discussion section shall try to present the collaborative indication of the connection of the literature review with that of the results garnered through the methodology section undergone within this study. The finalization of the research shall practically be given a prelude by the summary section which is to be finally ended within the conclusion section. Further recommendations for bettering the future studies could actually be presented in later researches proposals regarding the actual considerations applied when discussing matters about receptor response to sensory stimulants in connection with the two-point discrimination in the hand and finger theory understanding that corresponds to the message transmission between the brain and the hand-finger reception that promotes better function.

Literature Review

2.1 Understanding Skin Sensory

To note, there are actually different kinds of distinct sensations that the body receives. It could not be denied that somehow, these particular sensory types include tapping, vibration, pressure, pain, heat and coolness. These particular sensations become possible due to the existence of skin sensory receptors or cells that serve as touch sensibilities that provide the skin the proper function of responding to particular thermal, mechanical and chemical stimulus that basically intends to make a definite effect on how the skin cells are actually able to send the right message to the brain and have the brain respond accordingly to the sensory message that has been sent.

The central nervous system (CNS) is the primary response system that provides the real essence of the cell receptors and the role that they are taking in the approach of providing the brain and the hand-finger system an effective connection that establishes collective functioning. It could be observed though that somehow, the reaction that the receptors provide the brain with is not only dependent on the feel or the sensory message itself but also on the past experiential basis that the brain basically responds to in connection with the sent sensations by the hand and the fingers. This could be better envisioned through the image presented below.

Within this diagram, it could be observed that the connection between the receptor and the cell body is directly managed by the central nervous system which practically invokes the push for the body to respond to the message sent by the receptors found in the human skin. This is in direct relation to that of the function of the hands and the fingers. It could be observed that this sensory evidential proof naturally imposes an effective process of showing that the brain responds to the receptors’ message even without the existence of visual input. To prove this, the study of Chassard and his colleagues entitled Two-point discrimination tests versus functional sensory recovery in both median and ulnar nerve complete transections basically insists that the results of their method for research presented a rather considerable approach in pointing out that existence of strong receptor capabilities of blindfolded participants who had some certain dysfunctions when it comes to the role taken into consideration by their fingers and their hands. Although there were some certain measures of failures in the test because of the dysfunction, it could not be denied that the process of responding to the process was not that hard to comprehend with as the receptors, although weak were still able to carry out the message towards the cell body towards the brain and send back response for accurate reaction (793).

The message from the receptors travel through the cell body in the form of kinetically charged electrical signals that are carried through neuronal extensions noted as the axons. Upon reaching the brain, the touch sensory is interpreted through the tactile sense. The deciphering of the message occurs as the separation of the different elements present in it naturally recreates its signals into the brain. The elements considered are that of the surface, the temperature, the shape and the actual feel of the object or the received sensation. It is through this that the brain responds accordingly to what has been felt. Basically, this reception of sensation offers a good picture of how our body connects with the outside world. In terms of our hand and our fingers, the process by which they react depends on their capability to allow sensational messages pass through and be sent towards the brain for garnering accurate response.

2.2 Types of Tactile Receptors that Respond to Different Information

The tactile receptors are explained as the nerve endings that respond to the different stimuli that are presented as sensory messages. In this regard, the pace by which the brain receives the message actually depends within the capability of the tactile receptors to send in the sense of the message. It could be considered that somehow this is where the two-point discrimination comes in. The rapidly adapting tactile sensory basically notes the occurrence of a fast paced response of the brain towards the message of the receptors. However, having a fast response should be balanced properly with that of the slow adapting stimulus which makes it much possible for the brain to separate the elements of the message of the received sensory in more effective manner. This could be better explained through the diagram of pace measurement presented herein.

The diagram herein makes this particular diagram shows a differential understanding on how the rapidly adapting neural activity actually responds in balance with the slowly adapting neural activity. It could be observed that it is only through this particular balance that the two-point discrimination in the sensory capabilities of the hand and the fingers are actually identified.

2.3 Sensory input and the Brain

2.4 Understanding what Two Point Discrimination is about

2.5 The Two Point Discrimination in Hand and Fingers

2.6 Cases and Evidences

2.7 Summary

CULTURAL DIVERSITY

All nations are affected by the destructive consequences of drug abuse. Fast changing social and economical situations, the global availability of illegal drugs and the increasing demand for them have all greatly contributed to the rising magnitude of this grave global problem.

The problem of drug abuse has also increasingly become complex. It can no longer be claimed that drug use is only taking place among marginalized groups, or mainly in the western industrialized world. Drug use emerges as a survival means for the disadvantaged young people who are in close contact with crime and street life. It also forms a part of the youth subculture which is rapidly spreading a benign drug image around the world.

Illegal drugs are addictive substances, which is a fact that hazes the image line between abuse and use, and between addiction and consumption. According to the estimates that were done by the United Nations Drug Control Programme, annual illegal consumption of drugs is likely to involve three and a half percent to four percent of the world’s population. However, from a health point of view, heroin is the most serious drug abuse. Although the consumption of the drug is still relatively low, around eight million people or 0.14 percent of the world population, its use is steadily on the rise (Dorn, 2006). Cocaine is more prevalent in terms of the total number of consumers; thirteen million people or even 0.23 percent of the world’s population, even though fewer nations are affected. The most widely used drug is cannabis, that is, it is used or consumed by around two and a half percent of the world population- about one hundred and forty million people.

Although majority of the illegal drugs that are currently consumed are still obtained from plants or even their products that have been synthetically made, a wave of synthetic (ATS) Amphetamine Type has been reported in the recent years, with a sixteen percent average yearly increase in the quantities seized. Presently, some thirty million which is equivalent to 0.5 percent of the world population consume ATS. There seems to be a conception, widely spread through the media and specifically directed to the young population that these drugs are safe and fashionable.

Another major factor affecting illegal drug demand is that the age of initiation is falling nearly each year. This is particularly notable with regard to the individuals who sick medication for opiate abuse, like in the year 1995 when many young people in the age group fifteen to nineteen years entered treatment compared to entire three-year period from the year 1992 to 1994. This is not only an issue of developed nations. Most developing nations reported same trend in the increasing number of young people abusing heroin, hallucinogens, cannabis and stimulants (Trebach, 2006).

The question of impulsive substances must also be put into consideration, as these are not subject to global control measures. These substances might serve as an entrance to psychotropic and narcotics substances and the youths in especially extreme or difficult situations, like street children are particularly susceptible or vulnerable. For several millions of children who live on the streets or major towns and cities, sniffing substances that are volatile is both a mental and physical escape.

Approaches to drug education
Many past programmes of drug education have attempted to discourage the youths from using illegal drugs. This is known as primary prevention and has been tried using many different approaches. In rough chronological order, these include:

The shock or scare approach as shown in hard hitting anti-drug videos, talks by some government TV or ex-junkies and billboard campaigns focusing on the terrors of drug use.

The information approach whereby the youths are given the real facts about drugs and particularly the risks on the presumption that if they knew the facts well they would not use drugs.

The attitudes or approach whereby the trial is made in promotion of drug free kind of life, strong moral beliefs and personal responsibility to avoid drugs.

The refusal skills approach whereby the youths are viewed as easy prey to peer pressure and require developing skills to say No To Drugs.

The decision making approach that has the assumption that the youths do not have the generic skills to make logical choices and that if they possessed these skills they would not used drugs.

The optional or alternative highs whereby the trial is made to substitute the drug use excitement with other type or forms of risk taking like pot holding, abseiling and climbing assuming that the youths will then not need to use drugs.

The self-esteem approach whereby the focus is on the person rather than drugs per se and it’s presumed that the youths of high-esteem won’t use drugs.

The current strategy of the British government is ‘Tackling Drugs Together’ and is majorly based on the primary prevention with the aim of helping the youths to resist the issue of drugs use.

The impacts of drug education
Most politicians, parents and teachers believe that education on drug will discourage the youths from the use of drugs. However, analysis of all types of programmes on drug education in this nation and all over the developed world indicate that education on drug doesn’t prevent the youths from using drugs.

Murji and Dorn’s comprehensive review of the evaluation studies came to this conclusion and recommended that the best that can be expected of education on drug is to control or regulate post-initiation growth in the use and decrease drug related effect. Coggans et al. (1991) carried out the largest and most inclusive analysis of school drug education ever done in the United Kingdom. It also stated that education on drug doesn’t stop the use of drug but could play a role in its reduction.

Recently, DARE and Life Education have suggested that their programmes check or prevent the use of drugs but analysis of both programmes have came to a conclusion that this isn’t the case.

Some people claim that education on drug use might increase the use of drugs because it will instill ideas into the heads of the innocent individuals who would otherwise not think of using drugs. This is possible because eve the young children already know about drugs and also because the behavioral effect is clearly limited. Study that was done by a team at the University of Southampton, and replicated in several localities has indicated that even the young people think about and also are aware of drugs to an extent or degree that teachers and parents find amazing.

In no other part of education, apart from the sex education, would people consider ignorance as a good value. Education means putting ideas into the heads of children and introducing new concepts and information for use, now as well as in the future. To be efficient, education on drug has to prepare young individuals for the future and also make them understand and assist others, even if they do not use drugs themselves.

Nevertheless, some analyses indicate that sock or scare approaches might legitimize and glamorize the use of drugs amongst young individuals. This has the implication that the most anti-drug kinds of education might be worst as compared to having no education on drug at all. At a macro level, we find that several young people exposed to the programmes and campaigns of primary preventions at the very same time as the number of using illegal drugs has rose significantly.

The evidence from study indicates that proper education on drugs can increase knowledge on drugs, develop decision making skills as well as making the youths more perceptive about what they really do (Davies, 2004). This does not mean that they will not use legal or illicit drugs. Similarly, education on drug can play a role in the reduction of harms that are associated with drugs rather than preventing the use of drugs per se.

Education not propaganda

In deciding what the objectives of education on drug should be, it helps in the distinction between particular educational objectives and health related behaviors. In the past, practitioners have always fallen in the trap of thinking that the objective of education on drug should be to prevent all uses of drugs. They then find that this objective can’t be accomplished and are disappointed with the results of the programme.

Education on drugs should be based on the three broad objectives underpinning the teaching of other subjects:

To increase the understanding and knowledge of the young people about drugs, its use and the related issues;

To explore different attitudes and opinions towards the use of drugs and enable the youths to arrive at their own informed opinions;

To develop different skills that are related to the use of drugs as well as enabling the young people to make their own informed decisions concerning drugs.

Knowledge on drugs should be based on information that is appropriate and appreciates both the advantages and dangers of drug use. Nonetheless, attitudes towards the use of drugs vary significantly and there is no one ‘right’ view of the use of drugs which brings about complicated issues requires debate and exploration from different angles. Encouragement of the young people in making their own informed decisions simply means that, and doesn’t mean telling the youths the kind of decisions they should be making (Cohen, 2007). It is about the use of drugs by the young people here and right now, but should also be about their future, assisting others as well as understanding the role of drugs in the society.

References

Cohen, J., (2007). Achieving a reduction in drug-retated harm through education. London: Whurr

Davies J., (2004). The Facts About Adolescent Drug Abuse. London: Cassell

Dorn, N., (2006). Drug Prevention. London: ISDD.

Trebach, A., (2006). The Great Drugs War and Radical Proposals that can make America Safe Again. New York: MacMillan

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